Mandaeans

Mandaeans
ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ
ٱلصَّابِئَة ٱلْمَنْدَائِيُّون

Mandaeans in prayer
Total population
c. 60,000–100,000[1][2][3]
Regions with significant populations
Australia	15,000[4][5][6][7]
United States	14,000[8][4][9][10][11][12][13]
Sweden	13,000[4][14][15]
Iraq	7,000–10,000[8][16][13]
Iran	5,000–10,000[17][18][19][13]
Netherlands	4,000[4][3]
Germany	3,000[4][20][15]
Jordan	1,320[4][21][22]
Denmark	500[4][23][13]
Canada	500[4][24]
United Kingdom	400[4][3]
Finland	300[4][25]
Norway	300[4]
Austria	250[26]
Turkey	200[4][27]
New Zealand	150[4][15]
France	150[4][28]
United Arab Emirates	150[4]
Syria	100[4][29][13]
Belgium	30[4]
Religions
Mandaeism
Scriptures
Ginza Rabba, Qolasta, Book of John, Haran Gawaita, etc. (see more)
Languages
Mandaic as liturgical language Neo-Mandaic Mesopotamian Arabic (in Iraq, Jordan, UAE, Syria and diaspora) Persian (in Iran and diaspora) Swedish (in Sweden) English (in United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and diaspora) Dutch (in Netherlands, Belgium) German (in Germany, Austria) Danish (in Denmark) Finnish (in Finland) Norwegian (in Norway) French (in France, Belgium)

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v t e

Mandaeans (Classical Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ mandaiia) (Gnostics, Knowers, Enlightened Ones) (Arabic: ٱلْمَنْدَائِيُّون al-Mandāʾiyūn), also known as Sabians (Arabic: ٱلصَّابِئَة aṣ-Ṣābiʾah) or Sabian-Mandaeans (Arabic: ٱلصَّابِئَة ٱلْمَنْدَائِيُّون aṣ-Ṣābiʾah al-Mandāʾiyūn), Nasoraeans (Classical Mandaic: ࡍࡀࡑࡅࡓࡀࡉࡉࡀ Naṣuraiia) (Arabic: الناصورائيون al-Nāṣurā'iyūn) and Johannites (Arabic: اليحياويون al-Yaḥyāwiyūn), are an ancient ethnoreligious group, native to the alluvial plain of southern Mesopotamia, who are followers of Mandaeism. They are recognized as potentially the earliest documented practitioners of baptismal rites and are theorized to have played a formative role in the emergence of Gnostic traditions.^{[30][31]: 109} Presently, they remain the sole surviving Gnostic community with direct continuity to antiquity.^[30] The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of Mandaic, an Eastern Aramaic language, before many switched to colloquial Iraqi Arabic and Modern Persian, although being neither Arab nor Persian.

After the Iraq war in 2003, the Mandaean community of Iraq, which used to number 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed; most of the community relocated to nearby Iran, Syria and Jordan, or formed diaspora communities beyond the Middle East.^[32] The other community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious discrimination over those two decades.^[19][33] By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.^[34]

An estimated 60,000 to 100,000 Mandaeans reside worldwide.^[11] The largest populations are found in Australia, with approximately 15,000 individuals; Sweden, hosting around 13,000; and the USA, where the population ranges between 12,000 and 15,000. These countries represent the principal centers of the global Mandaean community.^{[4][8][15][6][22]}

The term "Mandaean" originates from the Mandaic word manda, which translates to "knowledge."^[35] In many Muslim-majority countries, Mandaeans are commonly referred to as Sabians (Arabic: الصابئون‎ al-Ṣābiʼūn),^{[36]: vii, 256} a designation that appears in the Quran as a People of the Book (ahl al-kitāb) under Islamic law. The Arabic term "Ṣābiʾūn" is believed by scholars to derive from the Aramaic root ṣba (Classical Mandaic: ࡑࡁࡀ), meaning "to baptize", reflecting the central role of baptism in Mandaean religious practice.^{[37][38]: 5 [39][40][41]: 35}

Additionally, Mandaeans are also known as Johannites (Arabic: اليحياويون al-Yaḥyāwiyūn), as they revere Yahya ibn Zakariya (John the Baptizer) as their principal prophet.^[42]

Several indicators point to the ultimate origins of the Mandaeans. Early Mandaean religious concepts and terminology appear in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the term Yardena (Jordan) has consistently designated the baptismal waters central to Mandaean ritual practice. ^[43] Mara d-Rabuta (Lord of Greatness), another name for the Mandaean God Hayyi Rabbi, is attested in the Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20) II, 4.^{[44]: 552–553} Mandaeans formally identify themselves as Naṣuraiia (Classical Mandaic: ࡍࡀࡑࡅࡓࡀࡉࡉࡀ, lit. 'Nasoraeans'), meaning "guardians" or "possessors of secret rites and knowledge."^[45][46] Another early self-designation, bhiri zidqa ("elect of righteousness" or "the chosen righteous"), is found both in Mandaean texts and in works such as the Book of Enoch and the Genesis Apocryphon.^{[44]: 552–553 [45][47]: 18 [48]} As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans regard themselves as the true congregation of bnai nhura ("Sons of Light"), a term also used by the Essenes.^{[41]: 50 [49]} The beit manda (beth manda) is described in Mandaean texts-including the Qolasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Book of John-as biniana rab ḏ-srara ("the Great building of Truth") and bit tuslima ("house of Perfection"). The only known literary parallels for these expressions are in Essene texts from Qumran, such as the Community Rule, which refers to the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."^[50]

The Mandaic language is a dialect of southeastern Aramaic with Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin,^[51][52] as well as Akkadian^[53] and Parthian^[54] influences and is closely related to Syriac and especially Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.^[55] Mandaic is mainly preserved as a liturgical language.

Mandaean religious leadership is structured around priests bearing the title Rabbi,^[56] while their places of worship are termed Mashkhanna.^[57] According to the Haran Gawaita-a foundational Mandaean text-the Nasuraiia (a priestly class within Mandaeism) resided in the regions surrounding Jerusalem and the Jordan River during the 1st century CE.^[31][46] Archaeological evidence, including incantation bowls and lead amulets, confirms a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in southern Mesopotamia, substantiating their historical roots in the region.^{[58]: 4 [59]} Carlos Gelbert argues that Mandaeans had formed a vibrant community in Edessa (present-day Urfa, Turkey) during the Late Antique period.^[60] Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph associate the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans, a sect described by Epiphanius of Salamis. However, Mandaean tradition asserts their religion predates Judaism, claiming that Israelites descend from their lineage.^{[61][59][31][62][63]} Mandaean texts trace their lineage to Shem, son of Noah, in Mesopotamia,^[61]: 186 while also asserting descent from John the Baptizer’s original Nasoraean disciples in Jerusalem.^{[46]: vi, ix} Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, was almost certainly influenced by the Mandaeans and the pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.^{[64][46]: IX}

Jorunn J. Buckley, a preeminent scholar of Mandaean studies, asserts that the Mandaeans trace their origins to Palestine/Judea approximately two millennia ago, subsequently migrating eastward due to historical persecution.^[65] Buckley situates Mandaeism (or Nasoraeanism) as a distinct tradition with Israelite roots, positioning it alongside Judaism and Samaritanism as one of the surviving religions derived from ancient Israelite heritage.^[31]: 97 While Mandaeans do not adhere to the Torah, their theological framework-characterized by Gnostic traditions and baptismal rituals-has led some scholars to classify them within the broader category of Jewish Gnosticism or to posit origins among such groups. This perspective is supported by evidence of syncretic influences from early Israelite and Mesopotamian religious contexts, as well as linguistic and ritual parallels between Mandaeism and heterodox Jewish movements of the Second Temple period.^{[66][56]: 11 [67][68][69][70][71]: xi, xv [72][73][74][75]: 98 [76]}

Gerard Russell quotes Rish amma Sattar Jabbar Hilo as stating:

"Ours is the oldest religion in the world," said Sheikh Sattar. "It dates back to Adam." He traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem. The Mandaeans believed in Adam, he said, who was the first man, and they accepted some other prophets who featured in the Hebrew Bible, such as Seth and Noah. Above all, they revered John the Baptist. But they rejected Abraham and had their own holy books that were quite separate from the Bible or the Koran.^[77]

Rish amma Salah Choheili states that the Mandaeans originally resided in Jerusalem.^[78] The Mandaean Synod of Australia, under his leadership, affirms:

Mandaeans are followers of John the Baptist. Their ancestors fled from the Jordan Valley about 2000 years ago and ultimately settled along the lower reaches of the Tigris, Euphrates and Karun Rivers in what is now Iraq and Iran. Baptism is the principal ceremony of the Mandaean religion and may only take place in a freshwater river.^[79]

Rish amma Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, writes:

According to the Mandaean account, Mandaeism is the oldest surviving of all religions, that can be traced back to the pre-Christian era. A large number of the Mandaeans lived in the Jordan Valley, Syria and its surrounding areas. These are the ones who generated a very wide recognition of the [sic] Mandaeism because of the connection with the appearance of John the Baptist. Other communities of the Mandaeans, though, had long settled throughout Mesopotamian and Persian lands. They consider themselves to be the indigenous Mesopotamian people. After the death of whom they take to be their last great Teacher, John the Baptist, the communities in Jordan and Palestine came under persecution and eventually migrated to join other Mandaeans in the Mesopotamian regions. They became renowned for their frequent use of water baptism, and often referred to as Sabians ("the Baptizers," from the Aramaic root: sba, to baptize). They settled in Iraq and Iran, especially around the upper middle and lower Euphrates, the Tigris and the Karun Rivers (the latter running into in [sic] the Khuzestan Province of Iran).^{[80]: 1–2}

A number of ancient Aramaic inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century CE were uncovered in Elymais. Although the letters appear quite similar to the Mandaean ones, it is impossible to know whether the inhabitants of Elymais were Mandaeans.^[81]: 4 Rudolf Macúch believes Mandaean letters predate Elymaic ones.^[81]: 4 Under Parthian and early Sasanian rule, foreign religions were tolerated and Mandaeans appear to have enjoyed royal protection.^[81]: 4 The situation changed by the ascension of Bahram I in 273, who under the influence of the zealous Zoroastrian high priest Kartir persecuted all non-Zoroastrian religions. It is thought that this persecution encouraged the consolidation of Mandaean religious literature.^[81]: 4 The persecutions instigated by Kartir seem to temporarily erase the Mandaeans from recorded history. Their presence, however, can still be found in Mandaean magical bowls and lead strips which were produced from the 2nd or 3rd to the 7th centuries.^{[81]: 4 [82]}

The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia, when their leader, Anush bar Danqa, appeared before Muslim authorities in c. 640 CE (Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas)^[15]: 164showing them a copy of the Ginza Rabba, the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be John the Baptizer, who is also mentioned in the Quran by the name Yahya ibn Zakariya. Consequently, the Muslim caliphates provided them acknowledgement as the Quranic Sabians, who are People of the Book, people who followed a legal minority religion under Islamic rule.^{[71]: IX [81]: 5} Mandaeans appeared to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near Wasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center.^[81]: 5 Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by Nabatean (i.e. Aramaic speaking) Sabians who consider themselves to be descendants of Seth.^[81]: 5

The status of the Mandaeans became an issue for the Abbasid caliph al-Qahir Billah, even though they had received recognition as People of the Book. To avoid further investigation by the authorities, the Mandaeans paid a bribe of 50,000 dinars and were left alone. It appears that the Mandaeans were even exempt from paying the Jizya, otherwise imposed upon non-Muslims.^[81]: 5

The Sabian-Mandaeans played a vital role in Baghdad and in the rest of the Arab world during the Abbasid caliphate, serving as great scholars and a source of science, as well as shaping intellectual life, and were likely part of the Sabians in Harran. The most prominent of the Sabian-Mandaeans was Thābit ibn Qurra (Thebit), but there were others as well such as Abu Is'haq Al-Sabi'.^{[41]: 39 [71]: 111} Drower names other famous Sabian-Mandaean scholars and physicians such as Abu'l-Fath Al-Mandāi (i.e. 'the Mandaean'), Ibrahim ibn Zahrūn Al-Harrani and Hilal ibn Ibrahim ibn Zahrūn Al-Sābi Al-Harrani (Zahrūn is a favoured Mandaean name).^[71]: 112 Maʿrūf al-Karkhi and Abu al-Fatḥ al-Wāṣiṭi are believed to have Sabian-Mandaean origins.^[83]: 401 Jabir ibn Hayyan and Al-Battani are also mentioned to be originally Sabians from Harran and may have been Sabian-Mandaeans.^{[84]: 95 [85]: 233 [86][87]: 317 [88]}

Early contact with Europeans came about in the mid-16th century, when Portuguese missionaries encountered Mandaeans in Southern Iraq and controversially designated them "Christians of St. John". In the next centuries, Europeans became more acquainted with the Mandaeans and their religion.^[81]: 5

The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the Qajar rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation when a cholera epidemic broke out in Shushtar and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of a few learned men, such as Yahya Bihram.^[81]: 6 Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of Shushtar massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.^[81]: 6

Following the First World War, the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protected Iraq and Iran. Owing to the rise of Arab nationalism, Iraqi Mandaeans were Arabised at an accelerated rate, especially during the 1950s and '60s. The Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stances on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.^[89]

The 2003 Iraq War brought more troubles for the Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated. Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms. The rise of Islamic extremism forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given the choice of conversion or death.^[90] It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled due to the war.^[90]

The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in Ahvaz, Khuzestan, but have moved as a result of the Iran–Iraq War to other cities such as Tehran, Karaj and Shiraz. The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as People of the Book (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after 1979. However, despite this, Iranian Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz. In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised. The parliament came to the conclusion that Sabians were included in the protected status of People of the Book alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, who are identified as being the Sabians mentioned explicitly in the Quran. That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of Al-Zahra University in Qom posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers. These rulings, however, did not lead to the Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book.^[91] In 2009, Iran's supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwā recognizing the Mandaeans as the Sabians (Sabeans) of the Qur'an and People of the Book (ahl-il-kitāb).^{[92][note 1]} However, the Iranian constitution has not been amended to reflect this.

Further information (in Arabic): Mandaeans in Iraq

Prior to the Iraq War, the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such as Nasiriyah, Amarah, Qal'at Saleh,^[96] Wasit,^[80]: 92 and Basra, as well as in Baghdad (particularly the district of Dora^[97]). Historically, Mandaean quarters also existed in southern Iraqi towns such as Qurna and Suq al-Shuyukh.^[98]

Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr.^[99] Mandaean emigration from Iraq began during the 1980s, but accelerated greatly after the 2003 war.^[100] Since 2003, Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidi, Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions.^[100][101] Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths.^[100] Mandaeism is pacifistic and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons.^{[100][102]: 91} During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.^[80]

Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction even though Mandaeans are recognized as Sabians (Sabeans) in the Iraqi constitution.^{[93][103][104]} Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the Iraq War.^[34] In 2019, an Al-Monitor study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the Erbil Governorate, which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.^[16] The Guardian (2024) estimates the number remaining in Iraq to be between 7,000 and 10,000.^[8]

Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the Abbasid Caliphate, when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.^[15]: 161

Further information (in Persian): Mandaeans in Iran"

The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.^[105]. However, the US State Department estimates the number to be between 5,000 and 10,000 (2023).^[17]

Until 1979, Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in the Khuzestan Province, where the community used to coexist with the local Arab population. Other than the main cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr, Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as Chogha Zanbil in Shush County, Shushtar, and Abadan,^[81] as well as Mahshahr, Shadegan, Behbahan, and Susangerd (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed in Dezful, Hamidiyeh, Hoveyzeh, Karun, and Abadan.^[80]: 48

They were mainly employed as goldsmiths, passing their skills from generation to generation.^[105] After 1979, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated from Iran to Europe and the Americas.

In Iran, the Gozinesh Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other gozinesh provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam.^[106] These laws are applied against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized in the Iranian constitution, such as the Mandaeans.^[107]

In 2002, the US State Department granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have immigrated to the US,^[19] now residing in cities such as San Antonio, Texas.^[108][109] On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.^[110]

According to the 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom in Iran by the U.S. State Department, Iran currently regards Sabian-Mandaeans as Christian and therefore recognized as an official religious minority. However, Mandaeans do not consider themselves Christians.^[18]

Following the Iraq War, the Mandaean community dispersed mostly throughout Jordan, Syria,^[111] and Iran. Mandaeans in Jordan number about 1,320 (2024)^[4][22][112] and in Syria there are about 100 remaining (2024).^[4][112][13] Mandaeans are also found in the UAE (c. 150)^{[4][113]: 88} and Turkey (c. 200).^[4][27]

There are Mandaean diaspora populations in Sweden (c. 13,000),^[4][15][14] Australia (c. 15,000),^[4][6][114] the US (c. 14,000),^[4][13][11] the UK,^[3] New Zealand and Canada.^{[115][103][116][117][100][118]} There are also Mandaeans living in Germany, the Netherlands (in Nijmegen, The Hague, etc.), Denmark,^[23] Finland,^[119] France,^[28] and smaller communities in Norway, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Poland and Romania.^{[113]: 88 [13][120][26]}

The scattered nature of the Mandaean diaspora has raised fears among Mandaeans about the religion's survival. Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.^[19][101]

The Sydney metropolitan area in Australia has one of the largest Mandaean diaspora communities in the world.^[96] The community is centered in Greater Western Sydney suburbs such as Penrith^[121] and Liverpool.^[122] In Liverpool, the main mandi (Beth Manda) is Ganzibra Dakheel Mandi.^[123] The Sabian Mandaean Association of Australia has purchased land by the banks of the Nepean River at Wallacia, New South Wales in order to build a new mandi.^[124] As of 2024, Australia has the largest Mandaean population worldwide (c. 15,000).^[4]

Sweden became a popular destination because a Mandaean community existed there before the war and the Swedish government has a liberal asylum policy toward Iraqis. There are approximately 13,000 Mandaeans in Sweden (2024).^{[4][15][116][100]}

On September 15, 2018, the Beth Manda Yardna was consecrated in Dalby, Scania, Sweden.^[125][126]

In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered in San Antonio (c. 2,500),^[12] New York City, San Diego,^[81] Winnetka, California, Austin, Texas,^[127] Worcester, Massachusetts (c. 2,500),^[9][10] Warren, Michigan,^[128] Chicago,^[129] and other major metropolitan areas. There is a mandi in Detroit.^[130]

The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, The New York Times ran an op-ed piece in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community.^[34] Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by the US State Department in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling in Worcester, Massachusetts.^[19][1] The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second-largest community outside the Middle East.^[10] About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since the Iraq War.^[131]

As of 2024, there are approximately 12,000 to 15,000 Mandaeans in the US, distributed over 35 different states.^[8]

Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicing Mandaeism, which is a monotheistic, Gnostic, and ethnic religion^{[81]: 4 [132][133]} (Aramaic manda means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek term gnosis.)^[133] Its adherents revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Enoch, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptizer.^{[133][35][134]} Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptizer to be prophets with Adam the founder or first teacher of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.^{[78][41]: 45 [135]: 207 [136]}

The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness.^[133] They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from the World of Light (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from the World of Darkness.^[133] In relation to the body–mind dualism coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.

Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by Nhura (Light) and Maia Hayyi (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by Hshuka (darkness) and Maia Tahmi (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light).^[137]

In Mandaeism, the World of Light is ruled by a supreme God, known as Hayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').^[137] Other names used are Mare d'Rabuta ('Lord of Greatness'), Mana Rabba ('The Great Mind'), Melka d'Nhura ('King of Light') and Hayyi Qadmaiyi ('The First Life').^[61][138] God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number of uthras (angels or guardians),^[81]: 8 manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. Yōšamin, Abathur, and Ptahil).^{[139][81]: 8}

The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of the World of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos.^[139][61] A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the name Ur, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known as Ruha.^[139] The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of the seven visible planets and twelve zodiac constellations.^[139]

According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created by Ptahil, who fills the role of the demiurge, with help from dark powers, such as Ruha, the Seven, and the Twelve.^[139] Adam's body (believed to be the first human created by God in Abrahamic tradition) was fashioned by these dark beings, however his soul (or mind) was a direct creation from the Light. Therefore, many Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the lightworld. The soul, sometimes referred to as the 'inner Adam' or Adam Kasia, is in dire need of being rescued from the dark, so it may ascend into the heavenly realm of the lightworld.^[139] Baptisms are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul. Mandaeans do not perform a single baptism; rather, they view baptisms as a ritual act capable of bringing the soul closer to salvation.^[30] Therefore, Mandaeans are baptized repeatedly during their lives.^[140][1] John the Baptizer is a key figure for the Mandaeans; they consider him to have been a Nasoraean Mandaean.^{[61]: 3 [141][6]} John is referred to as their greatest and final teacher.^[81][61]

Rish amma Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, asserts that Mandaeism, regarded by its followers as the world’s oldest surviving religion, originated in the pre-Christian era and historically prospered in the Jordan Valley, Syria, and neighboring regions associated with John the Baptizer. Following his death, Mandaean communities in the Levant experienced persecution and subsequently migrated to join their counterparts who identified as indigenous to Mesopotamia. Known as Sabians for their ritual practice of baptism, these communities ultimately established enduring centers along the Euphrates, Tigris, and Karun Rivers in present-day Iraq and Iran.^{[80]: 1–2}

Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn J. Buckley, and Şinasi Gündüz argue for a Palestinian/Judean origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptizer's inner circle of disciples.^{[142][72][71]: xiv [59][36][81][143][144][145][75][146]} Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic, finds Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek and Latin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Palestinian history with Jews".^[147][148] In addition, scholars such as Richard August Reitzenstein, Rudolf Bultmann, G. R. S. Mead, Andrew Phillip Smith, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, G. Quispel and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or Jordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans.^{[58]: 78 [149][150][151][152][153][154][155]} Torgny Säve-Söderberg discovered considerable word-for-word reproductions of the Ginza Rabba, Qolasta and Book of John in the 3rd-4th century Coptic Manichaean Psalms of Thomas.^[156]: 398 James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.^[157][152] Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"^[158] and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."^[71]: xv Barbara Thiering questions the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls and suggests that the Teacher of Righteousness (leader of the Essenes) was John the Baptizer.^[159] Jorunn J. Buckley argues for Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins^[31]: 97 and adds:

[T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of - or at least contributors to the development of - Gnosticism ... and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language... influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Manichaeism, Valentianism].^[31]: 109

In an interview, Charles G. Häberl stated:

... quite a lot of Christians trace their own lineage to the Assyrians and Babylonians in that region and I think that sort of ideology has also become very popular among Mandaeans of a secular background as well; they like to see their own origins in these ancient civilizations and understandably so. That being said, most people pushing in the first part of the 20th century the Babylonian or Mesopotamian origins of the Mandaeans were actually sectarian Christians who wanted to kind of push Mandaeans as far away from anything to say about John the Baptist and delegitimize their claims upon the shared history between Jews, Christians, Mandaeans and Muslims as well. They are trying to delegitimize that and alienate them by making them Mesopotamian pagans ... As with so many things, there's a kind of political impetus there.^[160]

The Quran makes references to the Sabians, who are identified with the Mandaeans.^{[38]: 5 [39][36]: 5 [40]} Sabians are counted among the Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book), and several hadith feature them. Seventh century Arab sources of early Quranic times make some references to Sabians. The word Sabian is derived from the Aramaic root related to baptism with the cognate in Neo-Mandaic being Ṣabi 'to baptize'.^{[37]: 1 [38]: 5 [40][39]} In the Middle East, they are more commonly known as the Ṣābi'ūn, i.e. 'the Sabians‘, or colloquially as the Ṣubba.^{[37][46][150]: 69 [61][102][161][39][162]}

The Haran Gawaita uses the name Nasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem, meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.^[45] Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski, Ethel S. Drower, James F. McGrath and Frank Williams connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius of Salamis, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot.^{[163][164][71]: xiv [59][152][145][75][165]} Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Jesus.^{[71]: xiv [166]}

The Nasaraeans ‐ they were Jews by nationality ‐ originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledged Moses and believed that he had received laws ‐ not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Books [Torah] are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraeans and the others.

— Epiphanius of Salamis' Panarion 1:18

Mandaeans are also known as Johannites (Arabic: اليحياويون al-Yaḥyāwiyūn) since they are followers of John the Baptizer, who is considered their greatest prophet.^[42]

Neo-Mandaic is the contemporary language spoken by some Mandaeans, while Classical Mandaic is the liturgical language of Mandaeism.^[167] However, most Mandaeans currently do not speak conversational Neo-Mandaic in everyday life, but rather the languages of their host countries, such as Arabic, Farsi, or English.

Related historical groups

• Bana'im
• Essenes
• Hemerobaptists
• Maghāriya

Other topics

• Mandaean name

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• Häberl, Charles G.; McGrath, James F. (2020). The Mandaean Book of John: Text and Translation. Berlin: De Gruyter. (open access version of text and translation, taken from Häberl & McGrath 2019)

• Buckley, Jorunn J. (2002). The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Buckley, Jorunn J. (2005). The Great Stem of Souls: Reconstruction Mandaean History. Piscataway: Gorgias Press.
• Deutsch, Nathaniel (1999). Guardians of the Gate: Angelic Vice-regency in the Late Antiquity. Brill. ISBN 9004109099.
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• Gündüz, Şinasi (1994). The Knowledge of Life: The Origins and Early History of the Mandaeans and Their Relation to the Sabians of the Qur'ān and to the Harranians. Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199221936.
• Nasoraia, Brikhah S. (2012). "Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion". In Çetinkaya, Bayram (ed.). Religious and Philosophical Texts: Rereading, Understanding and Comprehending Them in the 21st Century. Istanbul: Sultanbeyli Belediyesi. pp. vol. I, pp. 27–53.
• Rudolph, Kurt (1977). "Mandaeism". In Moore, Albert C. (ed.). Iconography of Religions: An Introduction. Vol. 21. Chris Robertson. ISBN 9780800604882.
• Rudolph, Kurt (2001). Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism. A&C Black. pp. 343–366. ISBN 9780567086402.
• Smith, Andrew P. (2016). John the Baptist and the Last Gnostics: The Secret History of the Mandaeans. London: Watkins Publishing.
• Review: McGrath, James F. (2019). "James F. McGrath Reviews From Sasanian Mandaeans to Sabians (van Bladel)". Enoch Seminar Online.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mandaeans.

• Mandaean Associations Union
• Resources of the language of the Mandaeans
• Mandaean Scriptures and Fragments
• Mandaean Human Rights Group (2008), Mandaean Human Rights Annual Report (PDF), AINA
• James McGrath on The Mandaeans and Mandaean Gnosticism (2015)

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