Copyright © 2025 by Author/s and Licensed by Lectito Publications, Netherlands. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.Journal of Cultural Analysis and Social Change, 2025, 10(1), 02ISSN: 2589-1316Orientalism and Representations of Hua Mulan: A Comparative Analysis of the 2020 Film AdaptationsWallace Ramos de Figueiredo1* 1 Rio de Janeiro State University, BRAZIL*Corresponding Author: ninorhamos@hotmail.com Citation:de Figueiredo, W. R. (2025). Orientalism and Representations of Hua Mulan: A ComparativeAnalysis of the 2020 Film Adaptations, Journal of Cultural Analysis and Social Change, 10(1), 02. https://doi.org/10.20897/jcasc/16522 Published: June 19, 2025 ABSTRACT This article examines the portrayal of Hua Mulan in the 2020 film adaptations produced in the USA andChina through the lens of Edward Said’s Orientalism, assessing the cultural and political implications of these representations. The study begins with a historical overview of Hua Mulan’s adaptations, focusing on how the 2020 films reflect cultural stereotypes, gender dynamics, and the tension between individualisticand collective values. By comparing these productions, it highlights the perpetuation of Western stereotypesabout Asian cultures and contrasts them with China’s narrative strategies. Furthermore, the articleemphasizes the importance of analyzing cultural representations in cinema as a tool for understandingbroader political and social dynamics. It argues that Said’s framework remains relevant for examining howthe “Other” is depicted in contemporary films, and proposes new insights into the political power of cinemain shaping public perceptions. This discussion contributes to the existing debates on Orientalism, offeringa nuanced critique of cultural representation and its role in reinforcing or challenging stereotypes. Keywords: martial arts, orientalism, individualism, collectivism, Chinese cinemaINTRODUCTIONThis article conducts a comparative exploration of Hua Mulan’s portrayal in two 2020 films: Disney’s Mulanand Rhapsody Pictures’ Matchless Mulan(无双花木兰 – WúshuāngHuā Mùlán). By analyzing these adaptationsthrough the lens of Edward Said’s Orientalism, the study investigates how cultural and political nuances manifestin their narratives, visual styles, and character development, with particular focus on gender roles and the tension between collective and individual identity. These representations reflect the influence of the films’ productionorigins, offering insights into cross-cultural tensions in cinematic portrayals.Hua Mulan is a historical figure whose adaptations have evolved over time, often reflecting broader culturaland political dynamics. The comparison of these recent films, produced in distinct cultural contexts, reveals howstereotypes and ideological frameworks shape representations of Asian cultures in global cinema. This studyemphasizes the relevance of Said’s Orientalism for analyzing such portrayals, particularly as they relate to ongoingdebates about identity, gender, and power.Utilizing a comparative methodology, this research is organized into several sections. It begins with an overviewof Hua Mulan’s historical background, explores film adaptations from the 1920s to 2020, and culminates in an analysis of the 2020 films within Said’s framework. By highlighting the intersection of cultural context andcinematic narrative, the article underscores the importance of cross-cultural perspectives in shaping interpretationsof historical figures in contemporary film.
de Figueiredo / Orientalism and Representations of Hua Mulan2 / 11© 2025 by Author/sLITERATURE REVIEWOver the years, numerous studies have examined the Asian context through the lens of Orientalism,highlighting how cinematic representations both reflect and challenge stereotypes. Park and Wilkins (2005)underscore the reductive portrayal of Asians in Western media, often depicted as villains or submissive characters,which contributes to the exoticization seen in films likeCharlie’s Angels andKill Bill. Vukovich (2012) discusses theconcept of “Sinological-orientalism,” which reflects a vision of China as inevitably conforming to Western cultural norms.The static and monolithic portrayal of Chinese culture, ignoring its complexities and transformations, is a keytheme explored by Zhang (2019). Zhao (2023) further examines the influence of post-colonialism on Chinesecinema, where exotic cultural elements are used to construct an Oriental image centered on Western perspectives.Yepez (2023) introduces the concept of “Ornamentalism,” describing how costumes in films transform Asianwomen into ornamental hybrids, stripping away their humanity and agency.In the realm of digital media, Araujo and Albuquerque (2024) analyze how Netflix’s algorithm reinforcesstereotypical views of China in Brazil, focusing on the imperial past and martial arts while neglecting contemporarytransformations. Sotomayor (2021) provides a comprehensive examination of Mulan adaptations, exploring howgender norms and cross-dressing challenge societal conventions and highlighting tensions between historicalaccuracy and authenticity in these adaptations.Collectively, these works provide a critical foundation for understanding how Orientalism shapes the portrayalof Hua Mulan in cinema, emphasizing the cultural and political complexities involved.METHODOLOGYThis research was conducted using a qualitative approach to analyze the selected works. The 2020 films Mulanby Disney andMatchless Mulanby Rhapsody Pictures were accessed through YouTube. This platform enabled fullviewing of the productions for detailed analysis. It is important to note that the availability of content on YouTubemay be intermittent due to channel policies and platform rule changes, which can affect the sustainability of onlinecontent over time.Sources of academic articles and other theoretical support were accessed via platforms such as Google Scholar,JSTOR, and SciELO. Keywords such as “Hua Mulan,” “Orientalism,” “cultural representation,” “2020 films,” “Chinese cinema,” and “Chinese cinema + Orientalism” were used to retrieve relevant information. Materials wereselected based on their relevance to the critical focus on cultural representations, with an emphasis on gender issuesand narrative constructions related to cultural aspects.The primary analysis of this research utilized Edward Said’s Orientalism as the main theoretical reference,presenting approaches that illustrate narrative aspects of the works, including gender dynamics and specific waysof representing cultural, visual, and character structuring elements. Dialogues and specific scenes were highlightedto demonstrate how these elements were addressed.ANALYSIS OF CHOSEN FILMS: HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL PERSPECTIVESBefore discussing the selected films, it is essential to provide a brief context for Hua Mulan’s story. Over theyears, Mulan has been portrayed in various interpretations, each reflecting the political and cultural aspects of its time. The story dates back to the 6th century and has influenced literature, theater, music, and cinema (Sotomayor,2021, p. 52).A Historical Overview of Hua Mulan in FilmFrom the 1920s to the 1930s, Mulan was featured in adaptations such as Mulan Joins the Army, produced by Tianyi Film Company and China Sun Motion Picture Company (Zhang, 2004, p. 42). During the late 1930s, amidthe Second Sino-Japanese War, nationalist sentiments influenced another version (Zhang and Xiao, 2002, p. 18).In 1964, Hong Kong’s musicalHua Mulan portrayed a confident character critical of military morality (Sotomayor,2021, p. 85).Disney’s adaptations in the 1990s and 2000s emphasized female independence (Sotomayor, 2021, p. 128) butfaced criticism for Westernization. The 2009 Chinese version directed by Jingle Ma focused on patriotism and filialpiety. In 2020, both Disney and Chinese productions revisited Hua Mulan’s story, each reflecting different culturalperspectives.
Journal of Cultural Analysis and Social Change, 10(1), 02© 2025 by Author/s3 / 11Analysis of “MatchlessMulan”: Identity, Collectivism, and PurposeThe Chinese version of Hua Mulan, starring胡雪儿 (Xue’er Hu), is set during a threat from the Rouran armyto the Chinese border during the Northern Wei Dynasty. Initially, the character’s dilemma is portrayed as a familyissue, as she decides to take on her elderly father’s military duties in the army by disguising herself as a man.The first theme is filial love, which motivates the character’s decision, reflecting Confucian traditions. This is evident in several moments throughout the film. For example, the character states that she is not there to kill, butto fight in her father’s name. The narrative builds on this motivation, portraying her reluctance to take human livesand framing combat as a military obligation far removed from her personal reasons.The film depicts military relationships akin to a family dynamic, uniting people not only through blood ties butalso through bonds of complicity formed toward a common goal, where hierarchical relationships do notundermine bonds of complicity. These relationships, initially seen as friendships within the military, expand as thenarrative unfolds, symbolizing the idea of a collective family.Flora Botton Beja (1999, p. 460) studied Chinese family relations and the State, referencing a 1964 government pamphlet that underscores the link between love, marriage, family, and society. The pamphlet emphasizes how a harmonious family contributes to production and social well-being, supporting the socialist construction cause.This idea resonates in the analyzed film and earlier versions before the communist revolution.The director dedicates the film to the Chinese People’s Liberation Army, emphasizing the connection betweenthe family drama and broader issues such as nationalism. Mulan’s journey illustrates the expansion of the familyconcept to encompass the larger community, represented by the state. She expresses this notion by revealing hergender, claiming to fight in her father’s name, for her family’s safety, and to end the war, promoting collective well-being and national prosperity.The plot reveals Mulan’s transition from a devoted daughter to a defender of the country, emphasizingcollectivism. This journey begins with personal issues, particularly her relationship with her parents, and extendsto form family ties within the army, depicted through interactions among the characters. The film culminates in the idea that the country functions as a large family, where national issues are addressed collectively to resolvefamilial concerns. In this sense, family relationships transcend blood ties and become an extension of society andthe state.Camaraderie among the characters is evident in scenes of shared suffering, such as when a prisoner’s brothersdie, leaving everyone profoundly affected. This connection marks a pivotal moment in the film, emphasizing unityand collectivism over individualism, as seen in scenes where everyone washes their clothes together.On the other hand, gender issues are not the primary focus of the narrative. The protagonist, who disguisesherself as a man, is portrayed simply by tying her hair to appear masculine. At certain points, it remains unclearwhether she has revealed her true identity, as she continues to be referred to with masculine pronouns until themoment of her revelation. This revelation, however, is not treated with the same intensity as in Western versions.Instead, Mulan’s moral values and her commitment to her country and family overshadow potential gender-relateddilemmas, offering a distinct perspective on the story.Analysis of Disney’s “Mulan”: Gender, Identity, and Cultural RepresentationDisney’s version of Mulan, released in 2020, takes a different narrative approach from the Chinese version,Matchless Mulan, focusing on themes of identity, gender, and cultural representation. While the Chinese version is in Mandarin, Disney’s version is entirely in English, targeting an international audience. The narrative begins by emphasizing Mulan’s childhood and her martial skills. It introduces gender roles through dialogues about marriage,suggesting a more “liberal” perspective on gender roles, as represented by Mulan’s father, in contrast to theconservatism often associated with Chinese culture.The reference to the Silk Road and scenes filmed in Xinjiang allude to the Belt and Road Initiative, attemptingto connect the film to contemporary China, despite controversies involving human rights violations in the region.Disney’s version includes a character with magical abilities, delving into the concept of 气(qì, also romanized as “chi”)1 as a mystical force. This portrayal perpetuates common stereotypes found in martial arts films, where Asiancultures are often framed as inherently mystical and exotic.A similar dynamic is evident in martial arts films produced in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s,such asBloodsport (1988) andKickboxer (1989), both starring Jean-Claude Van Damme. These films popularized anaesthetic of choreographed combat and mystical elements, reinforcing the notion of the “exotic Orient.” As ChrisHamm (2018, Chapter 6) notes, Hong Kong martial arts films have significantly shaped a “transnational actioncinema,” detaching martial arts from their historical and cultural roots to create globally marketable symbols. Thisdecontextualization is epitomized in The Matrix (1999), where Neo declares, “ I know kung fu,” portraying martial1气(qì)is a fundamental principle in Traditional Chinese Medicine, recognized by the World Health Organization since the1990s as part of its International Classification of Diseases (ICD).