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Continuous X rays and bremsstrahlung; i.e., the radiation produced by the sudden retardation of a fast-moving charged particle in an intense electrical field
Continuous X rays and bremsstrahlung; i.e., the radiation produced by the sudden retardation of a fast-moving charged particle in an intense electrical field
Invariance of the laws of physics under charge conjugation, an operation in relativistic mechanics that transforms every particle into its antiparticle
Invariance of the laws of physics under charge conjugation, an operation in relativistic mechanics that transforms every particle into its antiparticle
Effects of the passage of nuclear, or elementary, particles, nuclear radiations, or ionizing radiation through matter
Effects of the passage of nuclear, or elementary, particles, nuclear radiations, or ionizing radiation through matter
The use of fundamental processes of interaction between radiation and matter for the detection and characterization of nuclear and elementary processes
The use of fundamental processes of interaction between radiation and matter for the detection and characterization of nuclear and elementary processes
Energy, Radiation, and the States and Transformation of Matter
Energy, Radiation, and the States and Transformation of Matter
Chemical Elements: Periodic Variation in Their Properties
Chemical Elements: Periodic Variation in Their Properties
The systematic classification of the elements on the basis of their chemical and physical properties and atomic structures: the periodic law of the elements
The systematic classification of the elements on the basis of their chemical and physical properties and atomic structures: the periodic law of the elements
The groups of the chemical elements in the long form of the periodic table: their occurrence, history, physical and chemical properties, principal compounds, production, and uses
The groups of the chemical elements in the long form of the periodic table: their occurrence, history, physical and chemical properties, principal compounds, production, and uses
The transition elements: elements with partly filled d or J. orbitals occupying the middle portion of the periodic table
The transition elements: elements with partly filled d or J. orbitals occupying the middle portion of the periodic table
Individual elements of the second and third transition series: zirconium and hafnium, niobium and tantalum, molybdenum and tungsten, technetium and rhenium, ruthenium and osmium, rhodium and iridium, palladium and platinum, silver and gold
Individual elements of the second and third transition series: zirconium and hafnium, niobium and tantalum, molybdenum and tungsten, technetium and rhenium, ruthenium and osmium, rhodium and iridium, palladium and platinum, silver and gold
The rare-earth, or lanthanide. elements of the periodic table: scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium
The rare-earth, or lanthanide. elements of the periodic table: scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium
The actinide elements of the periodic table: actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium
The actinide elements of the periodic table: actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium
The transactinide elements of the periodic table: unnilquadium (or rutherfordium), unnilpentium (or hahnium), unnilhexium, unnilseptium, unniloctium, unnilennium; heavier elements which have yet to be discovered but whose existence is extrapolated based on the periodic law
The transactinide elements of the periodic table: unnilquadium (or rutherfordium), unnilpentium (or hahnium), unnilhexium, unnilseptium, unniloctium, unnilennium; heavier elements which have yet to be discovered but whose existence is extrapolated based on the periodic law
Chemical Compounds: Molecular Structure and Chemical Bonding
Chemical Compounds: Molecular Structure and Chemical Bonding
Experimental and theoretical procedures for the determination of molecular structures
Experimental and theoretical procedures for the determination of molecular structures
Physical methods used to determine optical activity, magnetic susceptibility, calorific values, heat of combustion, activation energy, and reaction rates
Physical methods used to determine optical activity, magnetic susceptibility, calorific values, heat of combustion, activation energy, and reaction rates
The determination of molecular weight based on thermodynamic theory, on transport phenomena, and on known spatial arrangements of atoms in the solid state
The determination of molecular weight based on thermodynamic theory, on transport phenomena, and on known spatial arrangements of atoms in the solid state
The theory of chemical bonding: its development and experimental bases
The theory of chemical bonding: its development and experimental bases
Other bonding effects: hydrogen bonding; metallic bonds in metals, intermetallic compounds, and coordination compounds; bonds in crystals, in weak associations, and in electron-deficient compounds
Other bonding effects: hydrogen bonding; metallic bonds in metals, intermetallic compounds, and coordination compounds; bonds in crystals, in weak associations, and in electron-deficient compounds
Basic concepts involved in the study of chemical reactions: transformation, conservation of mass and energy, law of simple multiple proportions in compounds
Basic concepts involved in the study of chemical reactions: transformation, conservation of mass and energy, law of simple multiple proportions in compounds
Factors that reveal the mechanisms of a reaction: chemical and stereochemical nature of the reactants, intermediates, and products; kinetics of the reaction
Factors that reveal the mechanisms of a reaction: chemical and stereochemical nature of the reactants, intermediates, and products; kinetics of the reaction
Classification of reaction mechanisms based on the nature of electron pairing in the transition state, on the nature of the attacking species, on the nature of catalysis, on the number of components of the transition state
Classification of reaction mechanisms based on the nature of electron pairing in the transition state, on the nature of the attacking species, on the nature of catalysis, on the number of components of the transition state
The definition of an acid as a substance that gives rise to hydrogen ions and of a base as a substance that gives rise to hydroxyl ions in aqueous solutions
The definition of an acid as a substance that gives rise to hydrogen ions and of a base as a substance that gives rise to hydroxyl ions in aqueous solutions
Heat, Thermodynamics, and the Nonsolid States of Matter
Heat, Thermodynamics, and the Nonsolid States of Matter
Simple one-component systems: processes at constant volume and at constant pressure; the equation of state, which relates pressure, volume, and temperature for stable equilibrium states
Simple one-component systems: processes at constant volume and at constant pressure; the equation of state, which relates pressure, volume, and temperature for stable equilibrium states
The molecular structure of liquids based on distribution functions, which measure the probable distribution of some property of molecules through the liquid
The molecular structure of liquids based on distribution functions, which measure the probable distribution of some property of molecules through the liquid
General theories of solution: the prediction of solubility and solution properties
General theories of solution: the prediction of solubility and solution properties
Solutions of nonelectrolytes: Raoult's law and Henry's law for ideal solutions; theoretical expressions for the excess properties of regular athermal, associated, and solvated solutions
Solutions of nonelectrolytes: Raoult's law and Henry's law for ideal solutions; theoretical expressions for the excess properties of regular athermal, associated, and solvated solutions
The plasma state of matter: completely ionized gases interacting with magnetic and electric fields
The plasma state of matter: completely ionized gases interacting with magnetic and electric fields
Basic plasma properties and parameters: electrical quasineutrality, electron density, kinetic temperature, particle velocities, magnetic and electric field strengths
Basic plasma properties and parameters: electrical quasineutrality, electron density, kinetic temperature, particle velocities, magnetic and electric field strengths
The classification of solids according to their electronic structure and bonding: ionic solids, covalent solids, metallic solids, molecular solids, hydrogen-bonded solids
The classification of solids according to their electronic structure and bonding: ionic solids, covalent solids, metallic solids, molecular solids, hydrogen-bonded solids
Metal surface phenomena: thermionic and field emission of electrons, electron tunnelling, photoemission, free carrier absorption and interband transitions
Metal surface phenomena: thermionic and field emission of electrons, electron tunnelling, photoemission, free carrier absorption and interband transitions
Direct electric current: current that flows in one direction
Direct electric current: current that flows in one direction
Behaviour of direct currents in electric circuits: Ohm's law; Kirchhoff's laws; the principles of devices that measure or indicate the presence of current, potential difference, and resistance
Behaviour of direct currents in electric circuits: Ohm's law; Kirchhoff's laws; the principles of devices that measure or indicate the presence of current, potential difference, and resistance
Bioelectric effects: effects associated with nerve, brain, and muscle action in which potential differences occur and can be influenced by applied potential
Bioelectric effects: effects associated with nerve, brain, and muscle action in which potential differences occur and can be influenced by applied potential
Gravitation: a universal force of mutual attraction that is postulated as acting between all matter
Gravitation: a universal force of mutual attraction that is postulated as acting between all matter
The Sun's surface layers and their features: the quiet Sun
The Sun's surface layers and their features: the quiet Sun
The chromosphere, the relatively transparent layer that forms a transition zone between the Sun's photosphere and corona: the flash spectrum, spicules, supergranulation
The chromosphere, the relatively transparent layer that forms a transition zone between the Sun's photosphere and corona: the flash spectrum, spicules, supergranulation
The geometry of the Sun–Earth–Moon system: the celestial equator, the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic, the inclination of the Earth's axis to its orbit
The geometry of the Sun–Earth–Moon system: the celestial equator, the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic, the inclination of the Earth's axis to its orbit
Motions of the Sun–Earth–Moon system as the astronomical basis of chronology: the day, month, and year; the Sothic cycle, Metonic cycle, and other complex cycles
Motions of the Sun–Earth–Moon system as the astronomical basis of chronology: the day, month, and year; the Sothic cycle, Metonic cycle, and other complex cycles
The Earth's Properties, Structure, and Composition
The Earth's Properties, Structure, and Composition
The Structure and Composition of the Earth's Interior
The Structure and Composition of the Earth's Interior
The indirect geophysical and geochemical evidence used to infer the structure and composition of the Earth's interior
The indirect geophysical and geochemical evidence used to infer the structure and composition of the Earth's interior
Evidence from crustal igneous rocks that are derived from the upper mantle; e.g., andesite lava flows, peridotite and eclogite inclusions in lava flows and some igneous rocks
Evidence from crustal igneous rocks that are derived from the upper mantle; e.g., andesite lava flows, peridotite and eclogite inclusions in lava flows and some igneous rocks
Occurrence of the elements in the Earth and its envelope
Occurrence of the elements in the Earth and its envelope
The geochemical cycle: the primary geochemical differentiation of the Earth; the migration of elements throughout the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and solid Earth
The geochemical cycle: the primary geochemical differentiation of the Earth; the migration of elements throughout the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and solid Earth
The Earth's Envelope: Its Atmosphere and Hydrosphere
The Earth's Envelope: Its Atmosphere and Hydrosphere
The general nature and relative scales of atmospheric motions: the resolution of winds into zonal (east-west), meridional (north-south), and vertical components
The general nature and relative scales of atmospheric motions: the resolution of winds into zonal (east-west), meridional (north-south), and vertical components
The relation of wind to pressure and temperature: the cause of winds, the effect of Coriolis force, idealized winds derived from simplified models—the geostrophic and thermal winds
The relation of wind to pressure and temperature: the cause of winds, the effect of Coriolis force, idealized winds derived from simplified models—the geostrophic and thermal winds
The Hydrosphere: the Oceans, Freshwater Bodies, and Ice Masses
The Hydrosphere: the Oceans, Freshwater Bodies, and Ice Masses
The general nature of the hydrologic cycle: the types of processes involved and their complex interaction, scales of magnitude of the interrelated components of the global hydrologic system, influences of climate and other factors
The general nature of the hydrologic cycle: the types of processes involved and their complex interaction, scales of magnitude of the interrelated components of the global hydrologic system, influences of climate and other factors
Effects of human activities on the hydrosphere; e.g.. cultural eutrophication; acidification of precipitation resulting from the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides; potential disruption of the water balance due to greenhouse warming induced by carbon dioxide buildup
Effects of human activities on the hydrosphere; e.g.. cultural eutrophication; acidification of precipitation resulting from the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides; potential disruption of the water balance due to greenhouse warming induced by carbon dioxide buildup
Model Output Statistics: extrapolation of weather conditions, using statistical relations between numerical model forecasts and past weather phenomena
Model Output Statistics: extrapolation of weather conditions, using statistical relations between numerical model forecasts and past weather phenomena
Enhancing the reliability of extended-range prediction through systematic studies of atmosphere-ocean interactions; e.g., El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Enhancing the reliability of extended-range prediction through systematic studies of atmosphere-ocean interactions; e.g., El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Effects of the atmosphere: absorption by dust and gases, including the trapping of solar radiation of infrared wavelength (the so-called greenhouse effect)
Effects of the atmosphere: absorption by dust and gases, including the trapping of solar radiation of infrared wavelength (the so-called greenhouse effect)
Effects of human activities on global climate; e.g., greenhouse warming induced by high concentrations of carbon dioxide (from the burning of fossil fuels) and other trace gases in the atmosphere
Effects of human activities on global climate; e.g., greenhouse warming induced by high concentrations of carbon dioxide (from the burning of fossil fuels) and other trace gases in the atmosphere
Evidence: e.g., landscape features associated with glaciations; fluctuations of lake and sea levels; pollen stratigraphy; archaeological and historical data
Evidence: e.g., landscape features associated with glaciations; fluctuations of lake and sea levels; pollen stratigraphy; archaeological and historical data
Identified causes of certain forms of climatic variation: variations in the tilt of the Earth's axis and orbital motion; variations in atmospheric composition; volcanic dust loading of the atmosphere; and changes in the distribution of land and sea due to plate-tectonic activity
Identified causes of certain forms of climatic variation: variations in the tilt of the Earth's axis and orbital motion; variations in atmospheric composition; volcanic dust loading of the atmosphere; and changes in the distribution of land and sea due to plate-tectonic activity
Uplift, downwarp, and fracture of continental platforms
Uplift, downwarp, and fracture of continental platforms
Water bodies occupying fault-bounded structural depressions: lakes and landlocked seas; inland seas with outlets to the oceans; elongated seas formed by crustal separation
Water bodies occupying fault-bounded structural depressions: lakes and landlocked seas; inland seas with outlets to the oceans; elongated seas formed by crustal separation
Major features of the deep-ocean floor: oceanic ridges, aseismic ridges, trenches, fracture zones, and transform faults; seamounts and guyots; abyssal hills and plains; sediments of the ocean floor
Major features of the deep-ocean floor: oceanic ridges, aseismic ridges, trenches, fracture zones, and transform faults; seamounts and guyots; abyssal hills and plains; sediments of the ocean floor
The major mountain ranges and fracture zones of the Earth's crust on the continents and beneath the oceans
The major mountain ranges and fracture zones of the Earth's crust on the continents and beneath the oceans
Features Produced by Geomorphic Processes Acting on the Earth's Surface
Features Produced by Geomorphic Processes Acting on the Earth's Surface
The action of the hydrosphere and atmosphere on the Earth's surface features
The action of the hydrosphere and atmosphere on the Earth's surface features
Origin and Development of the Earth and Its Envelopes
Origin and Development of the Earth and Its Envelopes
Effects of human activities and their ramifications; e.g., acid rain resulting from the emission of sulfur dioxide; ozone depletion caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons; greenhouse warming induced by the buildup of carbon dioxide
Effects of human activities and their ramifications; e.g., acid rain resulting from the emission of sulfur dioxide; ozone depletion caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons; greenhouse warming induced by the buildup of carbon dioxide
The stratigraphic interpretation of the geologic record
The stratigraphic interpretation of the geologic record
The Origin of Life and the Evolution of Living Things
The Origin of Life and the Evolution of Living Things
Drugs: chemicals administered to an organism to change its physiological state or to combat pathogens
Drugs: chemicals administered to an organism to change its physiological state or to combat pathogens
General features: comparisons between cells and viruses and between procaryotic and eucaryotic cells, tissues as providing a functional classification of cells
General features: comparisons between cells and viruses and between procaryotic and eucaryotic cells, tissues as providing a functional classification of cells
Cells and tissues of animals: absorptive cells, secretory cells, nerve cells, sensory cells, muscle cells, cells in supporting tissues, circulating cells, reproductive cells
Cells and tissues of animals: absorptive cells, secretory cells, nerve cells, sensory cells, muscle cells, cells in supporting tissues, circulating cells, reproductive cells
Morphological elements: parts of cells—cell membrane, extracellular matrix, mitochondria, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, nuclear envelope, chromosomes, nucleolus
Morphological elements: parts of cells—cell membrane, extracellular matrix, mitochondria, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, nuclear envelope, chromosomes, nucleolus
The internal environment and the cell matrix: the concept of the cell as a "protoplasm," the concept of the cell as a "bag" containing a water solution of molecules
The internal environment and the cell matrix: the concept of the cell as a "protoplasm," the concept of the cell as a "bag" containing a water solution of molecules
Cytokinesis: constriction of animal cell into halves by contractile ring of actin filaments; division of plant cell by formation of cell plate and new cell wall
Cytokinesis: constriction of animal cell into halves by contractile ring of actin filaments; division of plant cell by formation of cell plate and new cell wall
Organs of plants: tissue organization, functions, and types
Organs of plants: tissue organization, functions, and types
Development of organs in vascular plants: internal and external morphology, tissue organization, functions, types, and modifications; the stem; the leaf; the root
Development of organs in vascular plants: internal and external morphology, tissue organization, functions, types, and modifications; the stem; the leaf; the root
Coordination of Vital Processes: Regulation and Integration
Coordination of Vital Processes: Regulation and Integration
The central nervous system: the brain and its components; the spinal cord; the brain coverings (meninges), cavities, cerebrospinal fluid, and neuroglia (nonnervous tissue)
The central nervous system: the brain and its components; the spinal cord; the brain coverings (meninges), cavities, cerebrospinal fluid, and neuroglia (nonnervous tissue)
Rhythms correlated with natural geophysical cycles: solar-day rhythms, lunar-tidal rhythms, monthly rhythms, annual or seasonal rhythms, epochal rhythms
Rhythms correlated with natural geophysical cycles: solar-day rhythms, lunar-tidal rhythms, monthly rhythms, annual or seasonal rhythms, epochal rhythms
Covering and Support: Integumentary, Skeletal, and Musculatory Systems
Covering and Support: Integumentary, Skeletal, and Musculatory Systems
Vertebrate integuments: cellular components and their derivatives
Vertebrate integuments: cellular components and their derivatives
Skin derivatives and appendages: skin glands and pigment; epidermal scales; claws, nails, and hoofs; horns and antlers; feathers and hair; dermal derivatives
Skin derivatives and appendages: skin glands and pigment; epidermal scales; claws, nails, and hoofs; horns and antlers; feathers and hair; dermal derivatives
General features of muscle tissue: its role in movement, support, colour changes, temperature regulation, and discharge of certain glands; arrangement and gross function
General features of muscle tissue: its role in movement, support, colour changes, temperature regulation, and discharge of certain glands; arrangement and gross function
Nutrition: the Procurement and Processing of Nutrients
Nutrition: the Procurement and Processing of Nutrients
Syntrophism: nutritional interrelationships in which the immediate or end products of metabolism of one organism may provide essential nutrients for another
Syntrophism: nutritional interrelationships in which the immediate or end products of metabolism of one organism may provide essential nutrients for another
The reproductive system in plants: its organization and function
The reproductive system in plants: its organization and function
General features: asexual systems that create new plants identical to the parent plant, sexual systems that create new plants different from either of the two parents
General features: asexual systems that create new plants identical to the parent plant, sexual systems that create new plants different from either of the two parents
The physiology of reproduction: the influence of internal and environmental factors on the maturation of sporophytes and gametophytes as manifested by their ability to produce spores and gametes
The physiology of reproduction: the influence of internal and environmental factors on the maturation of sporophytes and gametophytes as manifested by their ability to produce spores and gametes
Mendelian genetics: Mendel's experiments and their significance, the universality of Mendel's laws, interactions among genes and their variant forms (alleles)
Mendelian genetics: Mendel's experiments and their significance, the universality of Mendel's laws, interactions among genes and their variant forms (alleles)
Molecular genetics: the chemical and molecular nature of genes, the genetic code and its mutations, the expression and regulation of genes, applications of molecular genetics
Molecular genetics: the chemical and molecular nature of genes, the genetic code and its mutations, the expression and regulation of genes, applications of molecular genetics
The nervous system and behaviour: the role of the nervous system in receiving information, processing it in the brain and spinal cord, and initiating the appropriate response
The nervous system and behaviour: the role of the nervous system in receiving information, processing it in the brain and spinal cord, and initiating the appropriate response
Interactions between populations of different species and the ecological, evolutionary, and biogeographical aspects of interaction on the population level
Interactions between populations of different species and the ecological, evolutionary, and biogeographical aspects of interaction on the population level
Hazards of Life in the Biosphere: Disease and Death
Hazards of Life in the Biosphere: Disease and Death
Biogeographic Distribution of Organisms: Ecosystems
Biogeographic Distribution of Organisms: Ecosystems
Major terrestrial biomes: the tundra, the coniferous forest, the middle-latitude forest, the tropical rain forest, the grassland and savanna, the scrublands, the desert
Major terrestrial biomes: the tundra, the coniferous forest, the middle-latitude forest, the tropical rain forest, the grassland and savanna, the scrublands, the desert
The qualities that set human beings apart in the biosphere
The qualities that set human beings apart in the biosphere
Physiological characteristics underlying the unique behaviour of humans: lack of a definite breeding season, long life span with slow development and lengthy dependency to maturity
Physiological characteristics underlying the unique behaviour of humans: lack of a definite breeding season, long life span with slow development and lengthy dependency to maturity
Human evolutionary relationships with living and fossil primates
Human evolutionary relationships with living and fossil primates
Classification of the primates: the two main groups or suborders, the prosimians (principally lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers) and the anthropoids (monkeys, apes, and man)
Classification of the primates: the two main groups or suborders, the prosimians (principally lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers) and the anthropoids (monkeys, apes, and man)
The symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the body as a whole
The symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the body as a whole
Disorders and injuries caused by physical agents: electrical shock; exposure to extremes of temperature, radiation, and pressure; motion sickness; wounds
Disorders and injuries caused by physical agents: electrical shock; exposure to extremes of temperature, radiation, and pressure; motion sickness; wounds
Efforts directed toward the prevention of malnutrition: the recognition and attempted solution of problems relating to nutrient requirements, world food supply, and world population
Efforts directed toward the prevention of malnutrition: the recognition and attempted solution of problems relating to nutrient requirements, world food supply, and world population
Health and safety laws: the regulation of working hours; restrictions on female and child labour; the elimination of health, safety, and fire hazards; the control of foods and drugs; pollution control
Health and safety laws: the regulation of working hours; restrictions on female and child labour; the elimination of health, safety, and fire hazards; the control of foods and drugs; pollution control
Human Nature and Experience: General Considerations
Human Nature and Experience: General Considerations
The relative contribution of opposing factors in human behaviour and conscious experience, the degree to which these factors interact to produce human behaviour and conscious experience
The relative contribution of opposing factors in human behaviour and conscious experience, the degree to which these factors interact to produce human behaviour and conscious experience
Mankind as radically distinct from nature and mankind as homogeneous and continuous with the rest of nature
Mankind as radically distinct from nature and mankind as homogeneous and continuous with the rest of nature
The explanation of allegedly distinctive human traits in accordance with the principle of phylogenetic continuity: the evolutionary development of mankind
The explanation of allegedly distinctive human traits in accordance with the principle of phylogenetic continuity: the evolutionary development of mankind
Emergent problems in the study of human behaviour and experience: the data and hypotheses of parapsychology; the comparison of human and artificial, machine-created intelligence
Emergent problems in the study of human behaviour and experience: the data and hypotheses of parapsychology; the comparison of human and artificial, machine-created intelligence
Influence of the Current Environment on a Person's Behaviour and Conscious Experience: Attention, Sensation, and Perception
Influence of the Current Environment on a Person's Behaviour and Conscious Experience: Attention, Sensation, and Perception
Sensation: the reception of information about the environment
Sensation: the reception of information about the environment
The mechanisms of the external, middle, and inner ear: functions and processes involved in the transmission of sound and its conversion into neural messages
The mechanisms of the external, middle, and inner ear: functions and processes involved in the transmission of sound and its conversion into neural messages
The work of the auditory nerve and the auditory pathways of the central nervous system: encoding, processing, and discrimination of pitch, loudness, localization, and duration of sound
The work of the auditory nerve and the auditory pathways of the central nervous system: encoding, processing, and discrimination of pitch, loudness, localization, and duration of sound
The olfactory sense: the form, location, and nerve supply of olfactory receptors; olfactory qualities; odour-inducing factors; factors affecting odour sensitivity; effects on behaviour
The olfactory sense: the form, location, and nerve supply of olfactory receptors; olfactory qualities; odour-inducing factors; factors affecting odour sensitivity; effects on behaviour
Perception: the process of translating sensory stimulation into organized experience
Perception: the process of translating sensory stimulation into organized experience
The Gestalt principle of Prdgnanz, or good form, and the laws of grouping under it: closure, good continuation, similarity, proximity, and common fate; the significance of the phi phenomenon
The Gestalt principle of Prdgnanz, or good form, and the laws of grouping under it: closure, good continuation, similarity, proximity, and common fate; the significance of the phi phenomenon
Theories of perceptual and of nonperceptual parapsychological phenomena: physical theories, field theories, and theories of the collective unconscious; projection hypothesis
Theories of perceptual and of nonperceptual parapsychological phenomena: physical theories, field theories, and theories of the collective unconscious; projection hypothesis
Current Internal States Affecting a Person's Behaviour and Conscious Experience
Current Internal States Affecting a Person's Behaviour and Conscious Experience
Persisting Capacities and Inclinations That Influence Human Behaviour and Conscious Experience
Persisting Capacities and Inclinations That Influence Human Behaviour and Conscious Experience
Personality and the Self: Integration and Disintegration of the Person as a Whole
Personality and the Self: Integration and Disintegration of the Person as a Whole
Strains and challenges put on adequate personality functioning: physical, psychological, and social stresses; e.g., frustration, conflict, personal inadequacy, deprivation of accustomed gratification
Strains and challenges put on adequate personality functioning: physical, psychological, and social stresses; e.g., frustration, conflict, personal inadequacy, deprivation of accustomed gratification
Responses to environmental strains on personality functioning: reactions, defense mechanisms, and adjustment dynamisms for coping with environmental demands
Responses to environmental strains on personality functioning: reactions, defense mechanisms, and adjustment dynamisms for coping with environmental demands
Persisting disturbances of personality integration or functioning: mental disorders
Persisting disturbances of personality integration or functioning: mental disorders
Major categories of mental disorders: organic mental disorders, schizophrenia, paranoid disorders, affective disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorders, posttraumatic stress disorders, somatoform disorders, dissociative disorders, personality disorders, psychosexual disorders, disorders of infancy or childhood
Major categories of mental disorders: organic mental disorders, schizophrenia, paranoid disorders, affective disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorders, posttraumatic stress disorders, somatoform disorders, dissociative disorders, personality disorders, psychosexual disorders, disorders of infancy or childhood
Major Cultural Components and Institutions of Human Societies
Major Cultural Components and Institutions of Human Societies
Systems of relationship based upon marriage and descent: kinship
Systems of relationship based upon marriage and descent: kinship
Control of resources, inheritance, and succession: the family as a centre for transmission of economic, religious, political, and other powers and goods
Control of resources, inheritance, and succession: the family as a centre for transmission of economic, religious, political, and other powers and goods
Communication as a foundation of human culture and as the essential element in social and cultural interaction, the role of communication in the modification of human behaviour
Communication as a foundation of human culture and as the essential element in social and cultural interaction, the role of communication in the modification of human behaviour
Language and culture: transmission of language; language and social differentiation; control of language for cultural ends; language learning and literacy; written language and spoken language
Language and culture: transmission of language; language and social differentiation; control of language for cultural ends; language learning and literacy; written language and spoken language
Factors producing social, economic, and cultural differences: sex differentiation, age differentiation, racial differentiation, intellectual differentiation, social and cultural factors
Factors producing social, economic, and cultural differences: sex differentiation, age differentiation, racial differentiation, intellectual differentiation, social and cultural factors
Varieties of social stratification and social mobility
Varieties of social stratification and social mobility
Types and characteristics of and comparisons among modern social classes: upper class, working class, and middle class; the special case of the peasant class
Types and characteristics of and comparisons among modern social classes: upper class, working class, and middle class; the special case of the peasant class
Modern theories of population; e.g., optimum population size, optimum rate of population growth, relationship between population and demographic movements
Modern theories of population; e.g., optimum population size, optimum rate of population growth, relationship between population and demographic movements
The Production, Distribution, and Utilization of Wealth
The Production, Distribution, and Utilization of Wealth
The Consumer and the Market: Pricing and the Mechanisms for Distributing Goods
The Consumer and the Market: Pricing and the Mechanisms for Distributing Goods
The price system as a means of organizing economic activity: the determination of what is to be produced, how goods are to be produced, and who gets the product
The price system as a means of organizing economic activity: the determination of what is to be produced, how goods are to be produced, and who gets the product
Analysis of costs and output in the short run: the production function, substitution, the relationship of marginal cost to market price, marginal product
Analysis of costs and output in the short run: the production function, substitution, the relationship of marginal cost to market price, marginal product
Institutional arrangements that facilitate production and output
Institutional arrangements that facilitate production and output
The monetary functions of commercial banks and central banks
The monetary functions of commercial banks and central banks
The market for long-term funds: savings institutions, the stock and bond markets, credit unions, mortgage institutions, farm cooperative banks, insurance institutions, mutual funds, pension funds
The market for long-term funds: savings institutions, the stock and bond markets, credit unions, mortgage institutions, farm cooperative banks, insurance institutions, mutual funds, pension funds
The role of government in production and distribution
The role of government in production and distribution
The justification of the government's claim to share in resource use: problems of balancing resource consumption between the public and private sectors
The justification of the government's claim to share in resource use: problems of balancing resource consumption between the public and private sectors
Casualty and surety insurance: liability insurance, theft insurance, aviation insurance, workmen's compensation or industrial injury insurance, credit insurance, title insurance, suretyship
Casualty and surety insurance: liability insurance, theft insurance, aviation insurance, workmen's compensation or industrial injury insurance, credit insurance, title insurance, suretyship
The distribution of wealth and income by categories of the population
The distribution of wealth and income by categories of the population
International economic and financial equilibrium and disequilibrium
International economic and financial equilibrium and disequilibrium
Foreign exchange markets: problems of alternative monetary standards and fixed and fluctuating exchange rates
Foreign exchange markets: problems of alternative monetary standards and fixed and fluctuating exchange rates
Equilibrating movements in the balance of payments and the mechanisms of adjustment: arbitrage, short-term movements, interest rates, and forward exchange
Equilibrating movements in the balance of payments and the mechanisms of adjustment: arbitrage, short-term movements, interest rates, and forward exchange
Methods for adjusting to fundamental disequilibrium: fiscal and monetary policy, incomes policy, devaluation and revaluation, and restrictions on capital movements
Methods for adjusting to fundamental disequilibrium: fiscal and monetary policy, incomes policy, devaluation and revaluation, and restrictions on capital movements
The relationship between economic underdevelopment and low per capita income: the rate of increase of gross domestic product (GDP) as compared to population growth
The relationship between economic underdevelopment and low per capita income: the rate of increase of gross domestic product (GDP) as compared to population growth
The Functioning of Government: the Dynamics of the Political Process
The Functioning of Government: the Dynamics of the Political Process
The conduct of foreign relations: the function of government in relation to other sovereign states, its own dependencies, and international organizations
The conduct of foreign relations: the function of government in relation to other sovereign states, its own dependencies, and international organizations
Territorial treaties regarding the sale or transfer of land; treaties granting rights of access and other uses of territory; treaties settling border disputes
Territorial treaties regarding the sale or transfer of land; treaties granting rights of access and other uses of territory; treaties settling border disputes
Foreign aid; government-sponsored organizations that affect internal relations in nonpolitical spheres, e.g., economic, cultural, technological organizations
Foreign aid; government-sponsored organizations that affect internal relations in nonpolitical spheres, e.g., economic, cultural, technological organizations
Degrees and kinds of war: limited war; total war; ethnic or tribal wars; religious wars; national, regional, and worldwide wars; civil wars and insurrections; guerrilla warfare
Degrees and kinds of war: limited war; total war; ethnic or tribal wars; religious wars; national, regional, and worldwide wars; civil wars and insurrections; guerrilla warfare
Branches of Private Law, Substantive and Procedural
Branches of Private Law, Substantive and Procedural
Injuries resulting from failure to comply with required standards of care: the proximate cause doctrine, effects of contributory negligence and third-party intervention
Injuries resulting from failure to comply with required standards of care: the proximate cause doctrine, effects of contributory negligence and third-party intervention
History of education: philosophies, practices, and institutions
History of education: philosophies, practices, and institutions
The 12th-century renaissance: reform of monastic schools and the rise of secular urban schools, development of universities and grammar schools, courtly education
The 12th-century renaissance: reform of monastic schools and the rise of secular urban schools, development of universities and grammar schools, courtly education
The characterization of works of art by reference to the cultural or social circumstances of their production or the extent and character of their audience: the primitive, folk, and popular arts
The characterization of works of art by reference to the cultural or social circumstances of their production or the extent and character of their audience: the primitive, folk, and popular arts
Experience and Criticism of Works of Art; the Nonaesthetic Contexts of Art
Experience and Criticism of Works of Art; the Nonaesthetic Contexts of Art
Diverse criteria of evaluation: aesthetic criteria; criteria related to the union of form and content; criteria related to meaning; criteria related to social, moral, or religious significance; criteria related to technique; criteria related to the intention of the artist
Diverse criteria of evaluation: aesthetic criteria; criteria related to the union of form and content; criteria related to meaning; criteria related to social, moral, or religious significance; criteria related to technique; criteria related to the intention of the artist
Biographical and autobiographical literature; e.g., character sketch, critical biography. popular biography, interpretive biography, letter, diary, journal, memoir
Biographical and autobiographical literature; e.g., character sketch, critical biography. popular biography, interpretive biography, letter, diary, journal, memoir
Kinds defined by the controlling artist; e.g., actor-dominated productions, dramatist-controlled productions, productions controlled by a nonperforming director
Kinds defined by the controlling artist; e.g., actor-dominated productions, dramatist-controlled productions, productions controlled by a nonperforming director
Musical instruments: the history, technology, and technique of classes and specific types of instruments
Musical instruments: the history, technology, and technique of classes and specific types of instruments
Electrophonic instruments: instruments that produce sound by electrical, electromechanical, or electronic means; e.g., electronic organs, tape recorders, synthesizers, computers
Electrophonic instruments: instruments that produce sound by electrical, electromechanical, or electronic means; e.g., electronic organs, tape recorders, synthesizers, computers
Musical forms and genres: the types of musical composition
Musical forms and genres: the types of musical composition
Forms and genres characterized by the technique of composition
Forms and genres characterized by the technique of composition
General considerations about jazz: its differentiation from and relation to folk music, popular music, and "art" music; its emphasis on the performer as creator; the importance of improvisation; its reflection of social and cultural forces
General considerations about jazz: its differentiation from and relation to folk music, popular music, and "art" music; its emphasis on the performer as creator; the importance of improvisation; its reflection of social and cultural forces
Architecture, Garden and Landscape Design, and Urban Design
Architecture, Garden and Landscape Design, and Urban Design
The kinds of decorative arts and types of decorative objects classified by the materials and methods used to produce or decorate them, or both
The kinds of decorative arts and types of decorative objects classified by the materials and methods used to produce or decorate them, or both
The arts of functional design: kinds and types of artistic object classified by their function
The arts of functional design: kinds and types of artistic object classified by their function
Diverse kinds of industrial design classified by function; e.g., design of commercial equipment, design of communications equipment, design of household appliances, design of transportation equipment
Diverse kinds of industrial design classified by function; e.g., design of commercial equipment, design of communications equipment, design of household appliances, design of transportation equipment
History of technology: sociocultural consequences of technological changes
History of technology: sociocultural consequences of technological changes
The beginnings of technology (to c. 3000 BC): emergence of the earliest communities, use of stone tools and weapons, beginnings of mining and agriculture
The beginnings of technology (to c. 3000 BC): emergence of the earliest communities, use of stone tools and weapons, beginnings of mining and agriculture
The urban revolution (c. 3000-500 BC): early civilization in the valleys of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates river systems, waterworks for irrigation, urban manufacturing
The urban revolution (c. 3000-500 BC): early civilization in the valleys of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates river systems, waterworks for irrigation, urban manufacturing
Technological achievements of Greece and Rome (500 BC—AD 500): mastery of iron, invention of mechanical contrivances, architectural and constructional works
Technological achievements of Greece and Rome (500 BC—AD 500): mastery of iron, invention of mechanical contrivances, architectural and constructional works
Medieval advances (AD 500-1500): harnessing of wind power and waterpower; construction of canals and bridges; construction of full-rigged ships; invention of printing
Medieval advances (AD 500-1500): harnessing of wind power and waterpower; construction of canals and bridges; construction of full-rigged ships; invention of printing
The emergence of Western technology (1500-1750): invention of early scientific instruments and tools, birth of steam power, development of agricultural and constructional techniques
The emergence of Western technology (1500-1750): invention of early scientific instruments and tools, birth of steam power, development of agricultural and constructional techniques
Space Age technology: nuclear power, automation and the electronic digital computer, rocketry and space exploration, advances in agricultural technology, advances in transportation and communication
Space Age technology: nuclear power, automation and the electronic digital computer, rocketry and space exploration, advances in agricultural technology, advances in transportation and communication
Devices and techniques for the utilization of energy
Devices and techniques for the utilization of energy
Devices for electric power generation: turbine-driven generators, engine-driven generators, nuclear-powered generators, hydraulic-turbine-driven generators, thermoelectric generators, dynamos, photovoltaic devices
Devices for electric power generation: turbine-driven generators, engine-driven generators, nuclear-powered generators, hydraulic-turbine-driven generators, thermoelectric generators, dynamos, photovoltaic devices
Electrical methods: electron-beam machining, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining, ion beam machining, laser machining, plasma arc machining
Electrical methods: electron-beam machining, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining, ion beam machining, laser machining, plasma arc machining
Technology of Measurement, Observation, and Control
Technology of Measurement, Observation, and Control
Special instruments and apparatus used in scientific research
Special instruments and apparatus used in scientific research
Particle accelerators; e.g., Cockcroft-Walton generators, Van de Graaff generators; linear resonance accelerators, betatrons, cyclotrons, synchrotrons, colliding-beam storage rings
Particle accelerators; e.g., Cockcroft-Walton generators, Van de Graaff generators; linear resonance accelerators, betatrons, cyclotrons, synchrotrons, colliding-beam storage rings
Materials processing: the operations that are used to transform industrial materials from a raw-material state into finished parts or products
Materials processing: the operations that are used to transform industrial materials from a raw-material state into finished parts or products
Technology of Information Processing and of Communications Systems
Technology of Information Processing and of Communications Systems
Writing and reproducing machines: typewriters, dictating and transcribing machines, word processors, duplicating machines and processes, copying machines and processes
Writing and reproducing machines: typewriters, dictating and transcribing machines, word processors, duplicating machines and processes, copying machines and processes
Programming systems: the encoding and entering of instructions into computer memory, the concept of software, the systems approach to writing computer programs
Programming systems: the encoding and entering of instructions into computer memory, the concept of software, the systems approach to writing computer programs
Recording and storage: image scanning and optical character recognition; mass storage via electromagnetic and electro-optical media (e.g., magnetic and digital-audio tape and disk, and optical disk, respectively)
Recording and storage: image scanning and optical character recognition; mass storage via electromagnetic and electro-optical media (e.g., magnetic and digital-audio tape and disk, and optical disk, respectively)
Display and dissemination: television monitors and interactive computer terminals; electronic mail, bulletins, and teleconferencing; electronic printing and photocomposition; speech synthesis
Display and dissemination: television monitors and interactive computer terminals; electronic mail, bulletins, and teleconferencing; electronic printing and photocomposition; speech synthesis
Electromagnetic sensors and transmitters: the use of radio, radar, infrared, ultraviolet, optical, and laser technology in communication, navigation, warning and detection, and weapon guidance
Electromagnetic sensors and transmitters: the use of radio, radar, infrared, ultraviolet, optical, and laser technology in communication, navigation, warning and detection, and weapon guidance
Developments in oceanographic sampling and measurement techniques; e.g., acoustic methods and solid-state microelectronic ocean-current measuring devices
Developments in oceanographic sampling and measurement techniques; e.g., acoustic methods and solid-state microelectronic ocean-current measuring devices
History of space flight prior to Sputnik I: early speculations and fictional accounts, development of space flight theory and technology during the 20th century
History of space flight prior to Sputnik I: early speculations and fictional accounts, development of space flight theory and technology during the 20th century
The use of orbiting satellites for scientific purposes; e.g., to study the natural phenomena of space, to test instrumentation and communication techniques
The use of orbiting satellites for scientific purposes; e.g., to study the natural phenomena of space, to test instrumentation and communication techniques
Manned space programs: the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Space Shuttle programs of the U.S.; the Vostok, Voskhod, and Soyuz/Salyut programs of the U.S.S.R. and the Russian Federation
Manned space programs: the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Space Shuttle programs of the U.S.; the Vostok, Voskhod, and Soyuz/Salyut programs of the U.S.S.R. and the Russian Federation
The philosophy of religion: diverse views of the nature and characteristics of religion
The philosophy of religion: diverse views of the nature and characteristics of religion
The prehistoric and protohistoric periods, through the 2nd millennium sc: the religions of the indigenous prehistoric peoples and of the Indus Valley civilization
The prehistoric and protohistoric periods, through the 2nd millennium sc: the religions of the indigenous prehistoric peoples and of the Indus Valley civilization
Indigenous Religions of East Asia: Religions of China, Korea, and Japan
Indigenous Religions of East Asia: Religions of China, Korea, and Japan
Characteristics and development of Chinese religion
Characteristics and development of Chinese religion
Establishment of Confucianism as the state orthodoxy of the Han Empire: eclectic tendencies, skeptical and rationalistic reactions (2nd century Bc-3rd century AD)
Establishment of Confucianism as the state orthodoxy of the Han Empire: eclectic tendencies, skeptical and rationalistic reactions (2nd century Bc-3rd century AD)
Confucianism during the time of Buddhist ascendancy: its continued role in the family system, the government bureaucracy, and the examination system; textual studies
Confucianism during the time of Buddhist ascendancy: its continued role in the family system, the government bureaucracy, and the examination system; textual studies
The emergence and development of Neo-Confucianism (11th-20th century): metaphysical and humanistic emphases, the teaching of Chu Hsi, the development of Neo-Confucian schools
The emergence and development of Neo-Confucianism (11th-20th century): metaphysical and humanistic emphases, the teaching of Chu Hsi, the development of Neo-Confucian schools
Varied responses to intellectual and material challenges of the West and to other developments: reformist and conservative movements, the effect of political developments on Confucian ideology and scholarship
Varied responses to intellectual and material challenges of the West and to other developments: reformist and conservative movements, the effect of political developments on Confucian ideology and scholarship
Developments during the Ch'in and Han periods (3rd century Bc-3rd century AD): esoteric traditions, the Huang–Lao tradition, revolutionary messianism, developments in philosophy
Developments during the Ch'in and Han periods (3rd century Bc-3rd century AD): esoteric traditions, the Huang–Lao tradition, revolutionary messianism, developments in philosophy
Developments from the 2nd to the 6th century: brief recognition of Taoism as the state religion; interaction with Buddhism; ceremonial, alchemical, and scriptural traditions
Developments from the 2nd to the 6th century: brief recognition of Taoism as the state religion; interaction with Buddhism; ceremonial, alchemical, and scriptural traditions
The early Christian Church from the reign of Constantine to the pontificate of Gregory I the Great (c. 4th-6th century)
The early Christian Church from the reign of Constantine to the pontificate of Gregory I the Great (c. 4th-6th century)
The establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire: the problem of the alliance between church and empire, the increasingly important role played by the bishop of Rome as pope
The establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire: the problem of the alliance between church and empire, the increasingly important role played by the bishop of Rome as pope
Doctrinal controversies that occasioned the further development of Christian theology: reaction to the teachings of Novatian, Donatus, Pelagius, and Arius; the role of St. Augustine; the councils of Nicaea (AD 325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (451)
Doctrinal controversies that occasioned the further development of Christian theology: reaction to the teachings of Novatian, Donatus, Pelagius, and Arius; the role of St. Augustine; the councils of Nicaea (AD 325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (451)
The growing division between Eastern and Western Christianity
The growing division between Eastern and Western Christianity
Developments affecting institutions and practices in the East and the West: the expansion of Christianity in the West, the rise of the independent churches in the East
Developments affecting institutions and practices in the East and the West: the expansion of Christianity in the West, the rise of the independent churches in the East
History of the Roman Catholic Church from the schism of 1054 to the present
History of the Roman Catholic Church from the schism of 1054 to the present
Beliefs, practices, and institutions of Christianity
Beliefs, practices, and institutions of Christianity
Doctrines concerning the nature and activity of God
Doctrines concerning the nature and activity of God
The role of the Holy Spirit in the church: the tensions between continuity and revolution, institutional authority and charismatic activity, and order and freedom
The role of the Holy Spirit in the church: the tensions between continuity and revolution, institutional authority and charismatic activity, and order and freedom
Doctrines concerning the church: Scripture, tradition, creeds, and confessions as normative expressions of Christian belief; the nature and role of doctrine and dogma
Doctrines concerning the church: Scripture, tradition, creeds, and confessions as normative expressions of Christian belief; the nature and role of doctrine and dogma
Eastern Christian Independent churches: Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch; Armenian Apostolic Church; Coptic Orthodox Church; Ethiopian Orthodox Church; Malabar Christians; Nestorian (Assyrian) Church
Eastern Christian Independent churches: Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch; Armenian Apostolic Church; Coptic Orthodox Church; Ethiopian Orthodox Church; Malabar Christians; Nestorian (Assyrian) Church
Teachings, forms of worship, and principles of organization distinguishing the Protestant heritage from that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
Teachings, forms of worship, and principles of organization distinguishing the Protestant heritage from that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
Other Religions and Religious Movements in the Modern World
Other Religions and Religious Movements in the Modern World
Peoples and Civilizations of Ancient Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Europe
Peoples and Civilizations of Ancient Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Europe
Early Peoples and Civilizations of Southwest Asia and Egypt, the Aegean, and North Africa
Early Peoples and Civilizations of Southwest Asia and Egypt, the Aegean, and North Africa
The character and achievements of ancient Near Eastern, Aegean, and North African civilizations; the geography of these regions; archaeological and documentary historical sources; historiographic problems
The character and achievements of ancient Near Eastern, Aegean, and North African civilizations; the geography of these regions; archaeological and documentary historical sources; historiographic problems
Development of river valley civilization in Mesopotamia
Development of river valley civilization in Mesopotamia
Their conjectured origins: literary and other historical sources (king lists and invention of cuneiform writing), early kings and legendary figures (Gilgamesh)
Their conjectured origins: literary and other historical sources (king lists and invention of cuneiform writing), early kings and legendary figures (Gilgamesh)
Foundation of city-states (e.g., Kish, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Mari, Umma): rivalry among the cities, the temple city and theocracy, social and economic organization, contacts with Egyptian and Indus Valley civilizations, Sumerian culture
Foundation of city-states (e.g., Kish, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Mari, Umma): rivalry among the cities, the temple city and theocracy, social and economic organization, contacts with Egyptian and Indus Valley civilizations, Sumerian culture
Emergence of river valley civilization in Egypt (to c. 1600 BC)
Emergence of river valley civilization in Egypt (to c. 1600 BC)
The Predynastic Period (to c. 2925 BC) and the Early Dynastic Period (1st through 3rd dynasties, c. 2925-c. 2575 BC): unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under King Menes (Narmer), capital at Memphis
The Predynastic Period (to c. 2925 BC) and the Early Dynastic Period (1st through 3rd dynasties, c. 2925-c. 2575 BC): unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under King Menes (Narmer), capital at Memphis
The Old Kingdom (c. 2575-2130 BC) and the First Intermediate Period (c. 2130-1939 BC)
The Old Kingdom (c. 2575-2130 BC) and the First Intermediate Period (c. 2130-1939 BC)
The Old Kingdom (4th-8th dynasties, c. 2575-c. 2130 BC): divine kingship; the building of the great pyramids near Memphis; centralized government; class structure; foreign trade; increased provincialization; instability of the throne
The Old Kingdom (4th-8th dynasties, c. 2575-c. 2130 BC): divine kingship; the building of the great pyramids near Memphis; centralized government; class structure; foreign trade; increased provincialization; instability of the throne
The First Intermediate Period (9th-1 lth dynasties, c. 2130-1939 BC): governmental decentralization; collapse of the Old Kingdom and ensuing disunity and foreign raids; reunification by Mentuhotep I under the 11th dynasty, ruling from Thebes
The First Intermediate Period (9th-1 lth dynasties, c. 2130-1939 BC): governmental decentralization; collapse of the Old Kingdom and ensuing disunity and foreign raids; reunification by Mentuhotep I under the 11th dynasty, ruling from Thebes
The Middle Kingdom (1938-c. 1600 BC) and the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1630-1540 ix)
The Middle Kingdom (1938-c. 1600 BC) and the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1630-1540 ix)
The Middle Kingdom (12th-14th dynasties, 1938-c. 1600 BC): the cult of Amon; developments in the monarchical institutions; the conquest of Lower Nubia; trade; immigration
The Middle Kingdom (12th-14th dynasties, 1938-c. 1600 BC): the cult of Amon; developments in the monarchical institutions; the conquest of Lower Nubia; trade; immigration
Early civilizations in Syria and Palestine, Anatolia, and the Aegean to c. 1600 BC
Early civilizations in Syria and Palestine, Anatolia, and the Aegean to c. 1600 BC
The Stone Age cultures and their transition from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age until c. 2300 BC, agricultural and technological developments, Proto-Urban settlements, Jericho
The Stone Age cultures and their transition from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age until c. 2300 BC, agricultural and technological developments, Proto-Urban settlements, Jericho
Pre-Pottery Neolithic areas, grouped houses and town walls, arrival of new peoples and their rectangular architecture, Pottery Neolithic areas, molded plaster vessels, dark-faced burnished ware and the spread of its associated culture in. The Chalcolithic Period and the Early Bronze Age: migrations and spread of Halafian culture, development of trade, beginnings of urbanization, Early Bronze Age cities
Pre-Pottery Neolithic areas, grouped houses and town walls, arrival of new peoples and their rectangular architecture, Pottery Neolithic areas, molded plaster vessels, dark-faced burnished ware and the spread of its associated culture in. The Chalcolithic Period and the Early Bronze Age: migrations and spread of Halafian culture, development of trade, beginnings of urbanization, Early Bronze Age cities
The Intermediate Period (c. 2300-c. 1900 Bc) and the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1900- c. 1525 Bc): revival of trade and connecting link between the greater states; e.g., Aleppo, Byblos, Alalakh in Syria
The Intermediate Period (c. 2300-c. 1900 Bc) and the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1900- c. 1525 Bc): revival of trade and connecting link between the greater states; e.g., Aleppo, Byblos, Alalakh in Syria
Emergence of civilizations in Anatolia, Cyprus, and the Aegean
Emergence of civilizations in Anatolia, Cyprus, and the Aegean
The Hittite occupation of Anatolia and establishment of the Old Hittite Kingdom (c. 1700-c. 1500 BC): expansion into northern Mesopotamia and Syria under Hattusilis and Mursilis, the Hurrian invasions, the Middle Kingdom
The Hittite occupation of Anatolia and establishment of the Old Hittite Kingdom (c. 1700-c. 1500 BC): expansion into northern Mesopotamia and Syria under Hattusilis and Mursilis, the Hurrian invasions, the Middle Kingdom
The Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic ages in Greece, Crete, and the Aegean islands; the pre-Greek (Early Bronze or Helladic) population of Greece from c. 3000 BC; the Early Bronze or Cycladic Age in the Aegean islands; the shaft grave period on the mainland
The Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic ages in Greece, Crete, and the Aegean islands; the pre-Greek (Early Bronze or Helladic) population of Greece from c. 3000 BC; the Early Bronze or Cycladic Age in the Aegean islands; the shaft grave period on the mainland
The Minoan civilization on Crete: the period of the Early Palaces (c. 2200-1700 BC), cultural efflorescence, Kamares ware, commerce, Knossos, Middle Cycladic culture, period of the Later Palaces (c. 1700-c. 1450 BC) on Crete, the arts, Linear A tablets
The Minoan civilization on Crete: the period of the Early Palaces (c. 2200-1700 BC), cultural efflorescence, Kamares ware, commerce, Knossos, Middle Cycladic culture, period of the Later Palaces (c. 1700-c. 1450 BC) on Crete, the arts, Linear A tablets
The era of the Egyptian and Hittite empires (c. 1600-1050 BC): the expansion of the Indo-Europeans
The era of the Egyptian and Hittite empires (c. 1600-1050 BC): the expansion of the Indo-Europeans
The New Kingdom of Egypt (18th-20th dynasties, 1539-1075 BC)
The New Kingdom of Egypt (18th-20th dynasties, 1539-1075 BC)
Expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt under Ahmose (1539-1514 BC): cult of Amon-Re, expansion into Syria and Palestine, contacts with the Aegean and its arts
Expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt under Ahmose (1539-1514 BC): cult of Amon-Re, expansion into Syria and Palestine, contacts with the Aegean and its arts
Egyptian culture and prosperity in the reigns of Amenhotep III (1390-1353 BC) and Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV; 1353-1336 BC): domination over Nubia, erection of new temples at Thebes, cult of the god Aton, subsequent eclipse of the dynasty
Egyptian culture and prosperity in the reigns of Amenhotep III (1390-1353 BC) and Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV; 1353-1336 BC): domination over Nubia, erection of new temples at Thebes, cult of the god Aton, subsequent eclipse of the dynasty
The reign of Ramses III (1187-1156 BC) and subsequent decline of the 20th dynasty, campaigns against the Sea Peoples, growth of influence of the priests of Amon-Re
The reign of Ramses III (1187-1156 BC) and subsequent decline of the 20th dynasty, campaigns against the Sea Peoples, growth of influence of the priests of Amon-Re
Society and culture in the New Kingdom: the king as the embodiment of the state; the civil service; the military; the priesthood; the artisans, common people, and slaves; trade and commerce
Society and culture in the New Kingdom: the king as the embodiment of the state; the civil service; the military; the priesthood; the artisans, common people, and slaves; trade and commerce
The Hittite Empire and its conflict with Egypt: Syria and Palestine under Egyptian and Hittite domination; the period of the migrations of new peoples
The Hittite Empire and its conflict with Egypt: Syria and Palestine under Egyptian and Hittite domination; the period of the migrations of new peoples
Expansion of the Hittite Empire under Suppiluliumas I into Syria (c. 1365 BC): reduction of the Mitannian state. ensuing conflicts and treaties with Egypt, relations with neighbouring states
Expansion of the Hittite Empire under Suppiluliumas I into Syria (c. 1365 BC): reduction of the Mitannian state. ensuing conflicts and treaties with Egypt, relations with neighbouring states
The capital of the Hittite Empire at Hattusa (BogazkOy): geographical position, architecture, invasions from the West, fall of the empire and destruction of the capital (c. 1190 BC), emergence of the Indo-European Phrygians as the chief Anatolian power
The capital of the Hittite Empire at Hattusa (BogazkOy): geographical position, architecture, invasions from the West, fall of the empire and destruction of the capital (c. 1190 BC), emergence of the Indo-European Phrygians as the chief Anatolian power
The development of Levantine seafaring trade: the Levantine city-states (e.g., Ugarit), political organization, economy, culture, development of the linear alphabet by the Canaanites and the spread of its use
The development of Levantine seafaring trade: the Levantine city-states (e.g., Ugarit), political organization, economy, culture, development of the linear alphabet by the Canaanites and the spread of its use
The origins of the Hebrews in the patriarchal age and their sojourn in and Exodus from Egypt in the 13th century BC, their conquest of Palestine, the Sea Peoples and the Philistine conquest of the Palestinian littoral
The origins of the Hebrews in the patriarchal age and their sojourn in and Exodus from Egypt in the 13th century BC, their conquest of Palestine, the Sea Peoples and the Philistine conquest of the Palestinian littoral
The Syro-Hittite states and the migration of the Semitic Aramaeans into Syria and Palestine c. 1100 Bc and their foundation of states in Syria: spread of the Aramaic language, trends in religion and the arts
The Syro-Hittite states and the migration of the Semitic Aramaeans into Syria and Palestine c. 1100 Bc and their foundation of states in Syria: spread of the Aramaic language, trends in religion and the arts
The Kassites in Babylonia (c. 1595-c. 1155 BC): their conjectured origins, their adoption of Mesopotamian culture, Elamite and Assyrian invasions after c. 1250, the fall of the Kassites
The Kassites in Babylonia (c. 1595-c. 1155 BC): their conjectured origins, their adoption of Mesopotamian culture, Elamite and Assyrian invasions after c. 1250, the fall of the Kassites
The rise of Assyria (c. 1360-1076 Bc): expansion under Ashur-uballit I (C. 1365-c. 1330 BO, conquest of Babylon, continued expansion to Tiglath-pileser I (c. 1115-c. 1077 BC), temporary eclipse of Assyria (to c. 900 BC)
The rise of Assyria (c. 1360-1076 Bc): expansion under Ashur-uballit I (C. 1365-c. 1330 BO, conquest of Babylon, continued expansion to Tiglath-pileser I (c. 1115-c. 1077 BC), temporary eclipse of Assyria (to c. 900 BC)
Mycenaean (Achacan, Late Helladic) civilization in Greece (c. 1450-1100 BC): the eruption of Thera (c. 1500 Bc), the conquest of Minoan Crete (c. 1450 nc), and the arrival of the Greeks
Mycenaean (Achacan, Late Helladic) civilization in Greece (c. 1450-1100 BC): the eruption of Thera (c. 1500 Bc), the conquest of Minoan Crete (c. 1450 nc), and the arrival of the Greeks
The overthrow of the existing social order, introduction of new artistic styles, conquest of the Cyclades, the evidence of the Linear B tablets, destruction of the palace at Knossos and period of the Mycenaean Empire
The overthrow of the existing social order, introduction of new artistic styles, conquest of the Cyclades, the evidence of the Linear B tablets, destruction of the palace at Knossos and period of the Mycenaean Empire
The era of the new states of Southwest Asia: the beginning of the Iron Age (c. 1050-700 BC)
The era of the new states of Southwest Asia: the beginning of the Iron Age (c. 1050-700 BC)
Egypt and Babylonia in decline, further Assyrian expansion
Egypt and Babylonia in decline, further Assyrian expansion
Egypt under the 21st-25th dynasties (c. 1075-656 BC): loss of influence in Syria, disunity and the diminution of royal power, Libyan domination, civil war and Kushite (Ethiopian) rule, the Assyrian conquest (671-664 BC)
Egypt under the 21st-25th dynasties (c. 1075-656 BC): loss of influence in Syria, disunity and the diminution of royal power, Libyan domination, civil war and Kushite (Ethiopian) rule, the Assyrian conquest (671-664 BC)
Babylonia (c. 1050-750 BC): the brief resurgence of Babylonian power under Nebuchadrezzar 1 (1124-1103 BC); the cult of Marduk: Aramaean, Assyrian, and Chaldean invasions from the 11th to the 9th century BC
Babylonia (c. 1050-750 BC): the brief resurgence of Babylonian power under Nebuchadrezzar 1 (1124-1103 BC); the cult of Marduk: Aramaean, Assyrian, and Chaldean invasions from the 11th to the 9th century BC
Development of Canaanite-Phoenician commercial city-states from c. 1100 to c. 700 BC (e.g., Tyre, Sidon): trade and colonization, Phoenician civilization
Development of Canaanite-Phoenician commercial city-states from c. 1100 to c. 700 BC (e.g., Tyre, Sidon): trade and colonization, Phoenician civilization
The neo-Hittite states of southeastern Anatolia: Carchemish, Milid (Malatya), Tabal, and Que (c. 1180-700 BC); conquest by the Aramaeans and Assyrians
The neo-Hittite states of southeastern Anatolia: Carchemish, Milid (Malatya), Tabal, and Que (c. 1180-700 BC); conquest by the Aramaeans and Assyrians
Foundation of Urartu in about the 13th century BC, rise of the Urartian kingdom (c. 840c. 744 Bc), Assyrian influences, the Cimmerian invasion (c. 714 Bc) and destruction of the kingdom (c. 609 BC), influence of the Urartian state, the Armenian Empire under the Artaxiads
Foundation of Urartu in about the 13th century BC, rise of the Urartian kingdom (c. 840c. 744 Bc), Assyrian influences, the Cimmerian invasion (c. 714 Bc) and destruction of the kingdom (c. 609 BC), influence of the Urartian state, the Armenian Empire under the Artaxiads
Phrygia in central and western Anatolia (c. 1180–c. 700 Bc): capital at Gordium, relations with Assyrians and Luwians, the Cimmerian invasions in the beginning of the 7th century, the cult of Cybele
Phrygia in central and western Anatolia (c. 1180–c. 700 Bc): capital at Gordium, relations with Assyrians and Luwians, the Cimmerian invasions in the beginning of the 7th century, the cult of Cybele
The era of the Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires and the Achaemenid Persian Empire (746250 Bc)
The era of the Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires and the Achaemenid Persian Empire (746250 Bc)
The first imperial unification of the ancient Near East under the Assyrian Empire (746-609 Bc)
The first imperial unification of the ancient Near East under the Assyrian Empire (746-609 Bc)
Expansion of the empire under Tiglath-pileser III (744-727 Bc), Sargon II (721-705 Bc), and Sennacherib (704-681 Bc); decline from the reign of Ashurbanipal (668-627 Bc); conquest by the Medes (625-609 Bc)
Expansion of the empire under Tiglath-pileser III (744-727 Bc), Sargon II (721-705 Bc), and Sennacherib (704-681 Bc); decline from the reign of Ashurbanipal (668-627 Bc); conquest by the Medes (625-609 Bc)
The interval between Assyrian and Achaemenid hegemony (610-539 Bc)
The interval between Assyrian and Achaemenid hegemony (610-539 Bc)
The reign of Nebuchadrezzar II (604-562 BC): subjection of Syria and Palestine, the Babylonian Exile of the Jews and the post-Exile period, building activities
The reign of Nebuchadrezzar II (604-562 BC): subjection of Syria and Palestine, the Babylonian Exile of the Jews and the post-Exile period, building activities
The Anatolian kingdom of Lydia (c. 700–c. 547 Bc): early relations with Assyria, the Cimmerian invasions, suzerainty over the Greeks in Anatolia, Greco-Lydian culture, growth of independent Cilicia in the late 7th century, conquest by Persia
The Anatolian kingdom of Lydia (c. 700–c. 547 Bc): early relations with Assyria, the Cimmerian invasions, suzerainty over the Greeks in Anatolia, Greco-Lydian culture, growth of independent Cilicia in the late 7th century, conquest by Persia
Saite Egypt (26th dynasty, 664-525 Bc) and its reassertion of independence after Assyrian rule; revival of traditional Egyptian culture, subjection to Persia
Saite Egypt (26th dynasty, 664-525 Bc) and its reassertion of independence after Assyrian rule; revival of traditional Egyptian culture, subjection to Persia
Conjectured origins of the Median state, expulsion of the Scythians, extension of control over the other Iranian peoples and into Armenia and eastern Anatolia after the downfall of Assyria
Conjectured origins of the Median state, expulsion of the Scythians, extension of control over the other Iranian peoples and into Armenia and eastern Anatolia after the downfall of Assyria
The Achaemenid Persian Empire (529-330 Bc) under the successors of Cyrus II the Great, Greek rule to c. 250 Bc
The Achaemenid Persian Empire (529-330 Bc) under the successors of Cyrus II the Great, Greek rule to c. 250 Bc
The empire under Cambyses II, Darius I, and Xerxes I (529-465 Bc): the subjugation of Egypt, establishment of peace in the empire, penetration of the Balkan Peninsula and the unsuccessful attempts to conquer mainland Greece
The empire under Cambyses II, Darius I, and Xerxes I (529-465 Bc): the subjugation of Egypt, establishment of peace in the empire, penetration of the Balkan Peninsula and the unsuccessful attempts to conquer mainland Greece
Xerxes' weak successors: continued involvement in Greek affairs; internal disunity in the 4th century, resulting in conquest by Alexander III the Great (330 Bc)
Xerxes' weak successors: continued involvement in Greek affairs; internal disunity in the 4th century, resulting in conquest by Alexander III the Great (330 Bc)
The Parthian and Sasanian (Sassanid) empires (c. 250 BC-AD 651), Armenia
The Parthian and Sasanian (Sassanid) empires (c. 250 BC-AD 651), Armenia
The revival of Iranian power with the establishment of the Parthian Empire by Arsaces, formation of the Arsacid Parthian state
The revival of Iranian power with the establishment of the Parthian Empire by Arsaces, formation of the Arsacid Parthian state
The "Philhellenistic Period" (c. 171 Bc–c. AD 10): eastern and western expansion until the mid-1st century BC, wars with Rome until the settlement of 20 Bc
The "Philhellenistic Period" (c. 171 Bc–c. AD 10): eastern and western expansion until the mid-1st century BC, wars with Rome until the settlement of 20 Bc
Extension of Iranian power under the Sasanian Empire
Extension of Iranian power under the Sasanian Empire
Foreign policy: conflicts with the Romans, Byzantines, and Turks under Khosrow I (AD 531-579) and Khosrow II (AD 590/591-628); subsequent decline and extinction of the empire with the Arab conquest (AD 636/637-651)
Foreign policy: conflicts with the Romans, Byzantines, and Turks under Khosrow I (AD 531-579) and Khosrow II (AD 590/591-628); subsequent decline and extinction of the empire with the Arab conquest (AD 636/637-651)
Egyptianization and the Kingdom of Kush (c. 1786-751 Bc), conquest of Egypt (c. 730 BC) and later expulsion by the Assyrians (by 654 Bc), conquest by Aksum (AD 350)
Egyptianization and the Kingdom of Kush (c. 1786-751 Bc), conquest of Egypt (c. 730 BC) and later expulsion by the Assyrians (by 654 Bc), conquest by Aksum (AD 350)
Pre-Islamic South Arabia: the kingdoms of Main, Saba', Qataban, Hadramawt, and the tribes of central and northern Arabia; economic activities; religion; foreign relations
Pre-Islamic South Arabia: the kingdoms of Main, Saba', Qataban, Hadramawt, and the tribes of central and northern Arabia; economic activities; religion; foreign relations
The Aksumite Empire (2nd century AD): the Abyssinian peoples, maritime trade, Ezana's rule (4th century AD), reign of Ella-Asbeha (6th century AD) and relations with Persia
The Aksumite Empire (2nd century AD): the Abyssinian peoples, maritime trade, Ezana's rule (4th century AD), reign of Ella-Asbeha (6th century AD) and relations with Persia
Emergence of civilization in North Africa: the Early Neolithic culture in the Maghrib and Libya, the Berbers, the influence of Egypt, the advent of the mercantile Phoenicians and their foundation of Carthage c. 814 BC (Utica, 1101 Bc?), the Greeks in Cyrenaica from c. 630 BC
Emergence of civilization in North Africa: the Early Neolithic culture in the Maghrib and Libya, the Berbers, the influence of Egypt, the advent of the mercantile Phoenicians and their foundation of Carthage c. 814 BC (Utica, 1101 Bc?), the Greeks in Cyrenaica from c. 630 BC
Emergence of Carthage as the leading western Mediterranean power: conflicts with the Greeks in the western Mediterranean, extension of Carthaginian power into Spain and the clash with Rome in the Punic Wars resulting in the destruction of Carthage (146 Bc)
Emergence of Carthage as the leading western Mediterranean power: conflicts with the Greeks in the western Mediterranean, extension of Carthaginian power into Spain and the clash with Rome in the Punic Wars resulting in the destruction of Carthage (146 Bc)
Peoples of Ancient Europe and the Classical Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean World to AD 395
Peoples of Ancient Europe and the Classical Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean World to AD 395
Spread of Bronze Age industry throughout Europe by c. 1500 BC: population movements into southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia in the 2nd millennium BC, the Indo-Europeans
Spread of Bronze Age industry throughout Europe by c. 1500 BC: population movements into southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia in the 2nd millennium BC, the Indo-Europeans
Non-Classical Europe in the Iron Age (c. 650 BC–C. AD 100)
Non-Classical Europe in the Iron Age (c. 650 BC–C. AD 100)
Conjectured Etruscan origins; Etruscan language and writing; cities; government and society; art and religion; maritime expansion; foreign relations with the Greeks, Carthaginians, and other Italic peoples; decline after c. 500 BC and eventual Roman conquest in the mid-3rd century
Conjectured Etruscan origins; Etruscan language and writing; cities; government and society; art and religion; maritime expansion; foreign relations with the Greeks, Carthaginians, and other Italic peoples; decline after c. 500 BC and eventual Roman conquest in the mid-3rd century
Other Italic peoples: the Umbro-Sabellians, Oscans, Apulians, Latins, Siculi, Ligurians, Veneti, and Piceni; their cultures; their relations with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Carthaginians; eventual absorption by Rome
Other Italic peoples: the Umbro-Sabellians, Oscans, Apulians, Latins, Siculi, Ligurians, Veneti, and Piceni; their cultures; their relations with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Carthaginians; eventual absorption by Rome
The Celts: the Hallstatt Period (7th-6th centuries BC); Celtic occupation of Europe from the Danube to the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles by c. 500 BC; Celtic penetration of Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, and Anatolia during the La Têne period (after c. 500 BC); subjugation in Gaul by Rome by 50 BC and later by the Germans by the 5th century AD; Celtic art, religion, and social and political organization
The Celts: the Hallstatt Period (7th-6th centuries BC); Celtic occupation of Europe from the Danube to the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles by c. 500 BC; Celtic penetration of Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, and Anatolia during the La Têne period (after c. 500 BC); subjugation in Gaul by Rome by 50 BC and later by the Germans by the 5th century AD; Celtic art, religion, and social and political organization
The Germans: their acquisition of Iron Age culture, migration into the Elbe–Rhine region by c. 500 BC, pressure on the Celts and Rome, inundation of the western half of the Roman Empire by the 5th century AD, Germanic social and political organization, religion and mythology
The Germans: their acquisition of Iron Age culture, migration into the Elbe–Rhine region by c. 500 BC, pressure on the Celts and Rome, inundation of the western half of the Roman Empire by the 5th century AD, Germanic social and political organization, religion and mythology
The Cimmerians: conjectured origins; southward migration, under Scythian pressure, from north of the Caucasus into Southwest Asia in the 8th and 7th centuries BC
The Cimmerians: conjectured origins; southward migration, under Scythian pressure, from north of the Caucasus into Southwest Asia in the 8th and 7th centuries BC
The Scythians (Sakas): westward migration from the 8th century BC and eventual establishment in India and southern Russia after c. 600 BC; the Kingdom of the Royal Scyths in southern Russia from c. 600 tic to c. AD 100; relations with the Greeks and with Achaemenid Persia; government, society, and military tactics; art and religion
The Scythians (Sakas): westward migration from the 8th century BC and eventual establishment in India and southern Russia after c. 600 BC; the Kingdom of the Royal Scyths in southern Russia from c. 600 tic to c. AD 100; relations with the Greeks and with Achaemenid Persia; government, society, and military tactics; art and religion
The Sarmatian migration into southern Russia in the 4th century BC and gradual displacement of the Scythians by c. AD 100; conflict with Rome; conquest by the Goths and Huns in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD; society, art, and religion
The Sarmatian migration into southern Russia in the 4th century BC and gradual displacement of the Scythians by c. AD 100; conflict with Rome; conquest by the Goths and Huns in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD; society, art, and religion
Archaic Greece and the development of Classical Greek civilization (c. 1200-323 BC)
Archaic Greece and the development of Classical Greek civilization (c. 1200-323 BC)
The Early Archaic and Archaic periods (c. 1200–c. 500 BC)
The Early Archaic and Archaic periods (c. 1200–c. 500 BC)
The Geometric Period (c. 900–c. 750 BC): the world of Homer and Hesiod, the beginning of writing and of the polis, mythology and religious developments, the panhellenic centres (e.g., Olympia, Delphi), social and political organization
The Geometric Period (c. 900–c. 750 BC): the world of Homer and Hesiod, the beginning of writing and of the polis, mythology and religious developments, the panhellenic centres (e.g., Olympia, Delphi), social and political organization
General trends in the poleis: displacement of monarchy by aristocracy, development of a money economy, socioeconomic crises and the rise and fall of tyranny, the colonization movement, relations among the poleis (e.g., leagues, wars)
General trends in the poleis: displacement of monarchy by aristocracy, development of a money economy, socioeconomic crises and the rise and fall of tyranny, the colonization movement, relations among the poleis (e.g., leagues, wars)
The poleis of mainland Greece: the emergence of Spartan dominance over the Peloponnese and of a military-oriented polity and repression; aristocracy and tyranny at Athens, the reforms of Solon. and the institution of democracy under Cleisthenes; tyranny. aristocracy, and economic expansion at Corinth; the other poleis of the Peloponnese, the Isthmus, Euboea, and Boeotia
The poleis of mainland Greece: the emergence of Spartan dominance over the Peloponnese and of a military-oriented polity and repression; aristocracy and tyranny at Athens, the reforms of Solon. and the institution of democracy under Cleisthenes; tyranny. aristocracy, and economic expansion at Corinth; the other poleis of the Peloponnese, the Isthmus, Euboea, and Boeotia
The Greeks in Asia Minor (Anatolia): Dorian and Aeolian cities; Miletus, Ephesus. and other Ionian cities; their commercial and cultural efflorescence
The Greeks in Asia Minor (Anatolia): Dorian and Aeolian cities; Miletus, Ephesus. and other Ionian cities; their commercial and cultural efflorescence
The Greek colonies and emporia in the West and Africa: southern Italy and Sicily (e.g., Cumae, Syracuse), Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Massilia), Cyrene and Naukratis
The Greek colonies and emporia in the West and Africa: southern Italy and Sicily (e.g., Cumae, Syracuse), Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Massilia), Cyrene and Naukratis
The Greeks in the North: Chalcidice, Thrace, Propontis (e.g., Byzantium, Abydos. Lampsacus), and Pontus (e.g., Black Sea region, Sinope, and Trapezus)
The Greeks in the North: Chalcidice, Thrace, Propontis (e.g., Byzantium, Abydos. Lampsacus), and Pontus (e.g., Black Sea region, Sinope, and Trapezus)
The Greco-Persian Wars: the Persian (Achaemenid) conquest of Asia Minor and Thrace and the Ionian revolt (499 Bc), Darius' (490 Bc) and Xerxes' (480 Bc) invasions of Greece and eventual Greek victory, the Greek offensive (479 Bc). results of the wars. Herodotus' account of the conflict
The Greco-Persian Wars: the Persian (Achaemenid) conquest of Asia Minor and Thrace and the Ionian revolt (499 Bc), Darius' (490 Bc) and Xerxes' (480 Bc) invasions of Greece and eventual Greek victory, the Greek offensive (479 Bc). results of the wars. Herodotus' account of the conflict
The Peloponnesian War (431-404 Bc): the war to the Peace of Nicias (421), renewal of the war and the defeat of Athens, intellectual and political changes at Athens (e.g., oligarchic revolution, the Sophists and Socrates), Thucydides' account of the war
The Peloponnesian War (431-404 Bc): the war to the Peace of Nicias (421), renewal of the war and the defeat of Athens, intellectual and political changes at Athens (e.g., oligarchic revolution, the Sophists and Socrates), Thucydides' account of the war
The era of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies in Greece: Spartan policies toward the Greek states, relations with Persia, Athens and Thebes against Sparta, the Second Athenian League and the restoration of democracy, Theban expansion and containment, peace and the balance of power in Greece
The era of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies in Greece: Spartan policies toward the Greek states, relations with Persia, Athens and Thebes against Sparta, the Second Athenian League and the restoration of democracy, Theban expansion and containment, peace and the balance of power in Greece
The empire of Alexander III the Great: relations with the Greeks: the conquest of the Persian Empire (334-330 Bc), Bactria, and the Indus Valley (330-323 Bc); the ideals and governing practices of Alexander and the diversity of his empire
The empire of Alexander III the Great: relations with the Greeks: the conquest of the Persian Empire (334-330 Bc), Bactria, and the Indus Valley (330-323 Bc); the ideals and governing practices of Alexander and the diversity of his empire
Establishment of the Hellenistic kingdoms and monarchies
Establishment of the Hellenistic kingdoms and monarchies
The Seleucid Kingdom in Asia: the dynasty, government, society, culture, and economy in its diverse regions; Jewish resistance; territorial losses in the 3rd century
The Seleucid Kingdom in Asia: the dynasty, government, society, culture, and economy in its diverse regions; Jewish resistance; territorial losses in the 3rd century
Relations among the Hellenistic states and other peoples from c. 275 to 27 BC
Relations among the Hellenistic states and other peoples from c. 275 to 27 BC
The Celtic migrations: expansion into the Iberian Peninsula, the British Isles, and Rome and southern Italy; later expansion into central Europe, the Carpathians. and the Balkans
The Celtic migrations: expansion into the Iberian Peninsula, the British Isles, and Rome and southern Italy; later expansion into central Europe, the Carpathians. and the Balkans
The vigorous policies of Antiochus III and Philip V; the breakup of the Seleucid Empire: the entrance of Rome into the affairs of the Hellenistic states, resulting in their eventual incorporation into the Roman Empire
The vigorous policies of Antiochus III and Philip V; the breakup of the Seleucid Empire: the entrance of Rome into the affairs of the Hellenistic states, resulting in their eventual incorporation into the Roman Empire
The character and achievements of the Romans, the archaeological and documentary historical sources (e.g., Pompeii and Herculaneum), historiographic problems
The character and achievements of the Romans, the archaeological and documentary historical sources (e.g., Pompeii and Herculaneum), historiographic problems
Overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of the republic and its institutions: the magistracies, judicial institutions. the Senate. plebeian institutions
Overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of the republic and its institutions: the magistracies, judicial institutions. the Senate. plebeian institutions
The middle republic: the emergence of Rome as the leading Mediterranean power (264-133 Bc)
The middle republic: the emergence of Rome as the leading Mediterranean power (264-133 Bc)
The First Punic War (264-241 Bc) and its aftermath: the emergence of Roman naval power and acquisition of Sicily (241 BC), later annexation of Corsica and Sardinia (238 Bc)
The First Punic War (264-241 Bc) and its aftermath: the emergence of Roman naval power and acquisition of Sicily (241 BC), later annexation of Corsica and Sardinia (238 Bc)
The Second Punic War (218-201 BC): Hannibal's invasion of Italy. his initial victories, and the war of attrition in Italy; Roman defeat of the Carthaginians at the Battle of the Metaurus (207 Bc); the First Macedonian War (214-205 BC) and the conflict in Spain; Roman counteroffensive and victory in Africa (202 Bc): Roman pacification of conquered territories
The Second Punic War (218-201 BC): Hannibal's invasion of Italy. his initial victories, and the war of attrition in Italy; Roman defeat of the Carthaginians at the Battle of the Metaurus (207 Bc); the First Macedonian War (214-205 BC) and the conflict in Spain; Roman counteroffensive and victory in Africa (202 Bc): Roman pacification of conquered territories
Establishment of a Roman protectorate over Greece after the Second Macedonian War (200-196 BO. the conquest of Macedonia and Illyricum (168 Bc). the reduction of Rhodes, Roman exclusion of Seleucid power from the Aegean
Establishment of a Roman protectorate over Greece after the Second Macedonian War (200-196 BO. the conquest of Macedonia and Illyricum (168 Bc). the reduction of Rhodes, Roman exclusion of Seleucid power from the Aegean
Roman government and economy in the middle republic: consuls, the Senate. and popular assemblies; development of large business interests. grazing estates, and urban immigration
Roman government and economy in the middle republic: consuls, the Senate. and popular assemblies; development of large business interests. grazing estates, and urban immigration
Roman wars against the Celts and the conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (121 Bc), wars against Jugurtha of Numidia (112-105 Bc) and the Germans (105-101 BC), Marius' career and military reforms
Roman wars against the Celts and the conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (121 Bc), wars against Jugurtha of Numidia (112-105 Bc) and the Germans (105-101 BC), Marius' career and military reforms
Events in Asia and the first war with Mithradates VI Eupator (88-85 Bc): Italian allies (socii) against Rome in the Social War (90-89 Bc) and their subsequent enfranchisement, the dictatorship and constitution of Sulla (82-80 Bc)
Events in Asia and the first war with Mithradates VI Eupator (88-85 Bc): Italian allies (socii) against Rome in the Social War (90-89 Bc) and their subsequent enfranchisement, the dictatorship and constitution of Sulla (82-80 Bc)
Growing political suspicion and the outbreak of violence in the mid-lst century Bc: the conspiracies of Catiline, Cicero's decline, the rise of Caesar and Pompey
Growing political suspicion and the outbreak of violence in the mid-lst century Bc: the conspiracies of Catiline, Cicero's decline, the rise of Caesar and Pompey
The alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus (59-44 BC): Caesar's conquest of Gaul; political maneuvers and the outbreak of the Civil War; Caesar's triumph, dictatorship, and assassination
The alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus (59-44 BC): Caesar's conquest of Gaul; political maneuvers and the outbreak of the Civil War; Caesar's triumph, dictatorship, and assassination
The initial cooperation of Octavian and Mark Antony in the Triumvirate and Octavian's achievement of sole power (43-31 Bc): the annexation of Egypt and its administration
The initial cooperation of Octavian and Mark Antony in the Triumvirate and Octavian's achievement of sole power (43-31 Bc): the annexation of Egypt and its administration
Consolidation of the empire under the Julio-Claudians (31 BC-AD 68)
Consolidation of the empire under the Julio-Claudians (31 BC-AD 68)
Augustus' establishment of the principate (27 BC-AD 14): the role of the princeps, the imperial administration, fiscal and military reforms, and the founding of new colonies; social and religious legislation; economic growth
Augustus' establishment of the principate (27 BC-AD 14): the role of the princeps, the imperial administration, fiscal and military reforms, and the founding of new colonies; social and religious legislation; economic growth
The Roman Empire at the time of Augustus: provincial administration, the imperial frontiers, the western provinces, the eastern provinces, the economic unification of the Mediterranean
The Roman Empire at the time of Augustus: provincial administration, the imperial frontiers, the western provinces, the eastern provinces, the economic unification of the Mediterranean
The empire under Tiberius (AD 14-37), Caligula (AD 37-41), Claudius I (AD 41-54), and Nero (AD 54-68): internal and frontier policies, the annexation of Britain, Tacitus' accounts, civil war and revolt in "the year of the four Emperors" (AD 69)
The empire under Tiberius (AD 14-37), Caligula (AD 37-41), Claudius I (AD 41-54), and Nero (AD 54-68): internal and frontier policies, the annexation of Britain, Tacitus' accounts, civil war and revolt in "the year of the four Emperors" (AD 69)
Growth of the empire under the Flavians and Antonines (AD 69-192)
Growth of the empire under the Flavians and Antonines (AD 69-192)
The Flavian emperors (AD 69-96): Vespasian's fiscal and provincial reorganization, military and frontier policies, Titus and the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Domitian's despotism, military development and frontiers
The Flavian emperors (AD 69-96): Vespasian's fiscal and provincial reorganization, military and frontier policies, Titus and the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Domitian's despotism, military development and frontiers
The Antonine emperors (AD 96-192): the reigns of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus; the beginning of imperial decline after AD 180
The Antonine emperors (AD 96-192): the reigns of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus; the beginning of imperial decline after AD 180
The zenith of the Roman Empire in the late 1st and 2nd centuries AD
The zenith of the Roman Empire in the late 1st and 2nd centuries AD
The city of Rome and the empire: methods of Roman imperialism; the cities, culture, society, politics, and economy of the western and eastern provinces; the legions and frontier defenses
The city of Rome and the empire: methods of Roman imperialism; the cities, culture, society, politics, and economy of the western and eastern provinces; the legions and frontier defenses
Changes and crises in the Roman Empire in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD
Changes and crises in the Roman Empire in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD
Religious and cultural life: the public religions under the empire, the rise and spread of Christianity and other Eastern religions, official persecution of Christianity
Religious and cultural life: the public religions under the empire, the rise and spread of Christianity and other Eastern religions, official persecution of Christianity
Military anarchy and disintegration of the Roman Empire (AD 235-270): the Gordians, the beginning of Germanic invasions, loss of eastern provinces, economic and social crisis
Military anarchy and disintegration of the Roman Empire (AD 235-270): the Gordians, the beginning of Germanic invasions, loss of eastern provinces, economic and social crisis
Peoples and Civilizations of Medieval Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia
Peoples and Civilizations of Medieval Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia
Western Europe, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, and Eastern Europe from AD 395 to c. 1050
Western Europe, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, and Eastern Europe from AD 395 to c. 1050
The eclipse of the Roman Empire in the West and the development and Christianization of Germanic successor states (AD 395—c. 750)
The eclipse of the Roman Empire in the West and the development and Christianization of Germanic successor states (AD 395—c. 750)
The end of the Western Roman Empire and the Germanic VOlkerwanderung (AD 395—c. 500)
The end of the Western Roman Empire and the Germanic VOlkerwanderung (AD 395—c. 500)
Establishment of the Germanic hegemony: the invasions of Vandals; the invasions of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (Britain); the Visigothic invasions in the 5th century and settlement in Provence and Spain; the Frankish conquest of Gaul (c. 481/482-511) and the Burgundian flight to the south; the Huns; abolition of the Western Empire and Ostrogothic rule in Italy (493-553); other Germanic tribes—the issue of Arianism versus Catholic Christianity; Germanic law and society
Establishment of the Germanic hegemony: the invasions of Vandals; the invasions of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (Britain); the Visigothic invasions in the 5th century and settlement in Provence and Spain; the Frankish conquest of Gaul (c. 481/482-511) and the Burgundian flight to the south; the Huns; abolition of the Western Empire and Ostrogothic rule in Italy (493-553); other Germanic tribes—the issue of Arianism versus Catholic Christianity; Germanic law and society
The Germanic successor states and the remnants of the Roman Empire in the West from c. 500 to 750; the origins of early feudalism
The Germanic successor states and the remnants of the Roman Empire in the West from c. 500 to 750; the origins of early feudalism
Byzantine conquests and later diminution of Byzantium's western possessions (540-751), the Exarchate of Ravenna, Lombard conquests in Italy, beginning of the political role of the Roman papacy
Byzantine conquests and later diminution of Byzantium's western possessions (540-751), the Exarchate of Ravenna, Lombard conquests in Italy, beginning of the political role of the Roman papacy
The Franks under the Merovingians and early Carolingians: the successors of Clovis, rise and establishment of the Carolingians under Charles Martel and Pepin III the Short (714-768), Carolingian relations with the papacy and entry into Italian affairs; origins of the Papal States
The Franks under the Merovingians and early Carolingians: the successors of Clovis, rise and establishment of the Carolingians under Charles Martel and Pepin III the Short (714-768), Carolingian relations with the papacy and entry into Italian affairs; origins of the Papal States
Persistence of Greco-Roman society in the East in the 5th century: the empire from the death of Theodosius Ito the accession of Heraclius (610)
Persistence of Greco-Roman society in the East in the 5th century: the empire from the death of Theodosius Ito the accession of Heraclius (610)
The reigns of Justin I (518-527) and Justinian I (527-565): realignment with the Roman Church, Code of Justinian, military campaigns in the West, effects of the plague, later campaigns
The reigns of Justin I (518-527) and Justinian I (527-565): realignment with the Roman Church, Code of Justinian, military campaigns in the West, effects of the plague, later campaigns
Rehabilitation of the empire under the dynasty of Heraclius (610-711)
Rehabilitation of the empire under the dynasty of Heraclius (610-711)
Heraclius' reorganization of the empire along military lines: wars with Persia; the loss of Syria, Palestine, Armenia, and Egypt to the Arabs and continued Arab pressures; recognition of Byzantine overlordship in the Balkans
Heraclius' reorganization of the empire along military lines: wars with Persia; the loss of Syria, Palestine, Armenia, and Egypt to the Arabs and continued Arab pressures; recognition of Byzantine overlordship in the Balkans
Decline of the dynasty (685-711): renewed wars with the Slays; settlement with the Arabs; fiscal, agricultural, and defensive policies; military anarchy (711-717)
Decline of the dynasty (685-711): renewed wars with the Slays; settlement with the Arabs; fiscal, agricultural, and defensive policies; military anarchy (711-717)
Western Christendom and Scandinavia from the Carolingian era to the general European revival (c. 750-c. 1050)
Western Christendom and Scandinavia from the Carolingian era to the general European revival (c. 750-c. 1050)
The Carolingian Empire and its later dissolution (c. 750-887), France in the 10th century
The Carolingian Empire and its later dissolution (c. 750-887), France in the 10th century
The reign of Charlemagne (king, 768-814; emperor from 800): further military expansion of the Frankish kingdom; legislation, administration, and defense; ecclesiastical policies; patronage of arts and learning
The reign of Charlemagne (king, 768-814; emperor from 800): further military expansion of the Frankish kingdom; legislation, administration, and defense; ecclesiastical policies; patronage of arts and learning
Louis the Pious; partitioning of the empire by the Treaty of Verdun (843) between Louis's sons (Lothair, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German); Muslim, Norman, and Magyar invasions and the debilitation of central authority
Louis the Pious; partitioning of the empire by the Treaty of Verdun (843) between Louis's sons (Lothair, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German); Muslim, Norman, and Magyar invasions and the debilitation of central authority
The Frankish world: society, institutions, economic life, the church (triumph and reform of Benedictine monasticism, birth of the Cluniac order), literature (Carolingian renaissance) and the arts
The Frankish world: society, institutions, economic life, the church (triumph and reform of Benedictine monasticism, birth of the Cluniac order), literature (Carolingian renaissance) and the arts
England: the decline of Mercia and the rise of Wessex; the 9th-century Danish invasions; King Alfred's legal, administrative, and ecclesiastical policies and patronage of the arts; Anglo-Saxon political unification and monastic revival in the 10th century; the conquest of the Danes and their rule over the Anglo-Danish state; the reign of Edward the Confessor and the Norman Conquest
England: the decline of Mercia and the rise of Wessex; the 9th-century Danish invasions; King Alfred's legal, administrative, and ecclesiastical policies and patronage of the arts; Anglo-Saxon political unification and monastic revival in the 10th century; the conquest of the Danes and their rule over the Anglo-Danish state; the reign of Edward the Confessor and the Norman Conquest
The Viking Age in Scandinavia: the Vikings and Varangians, widespread raids and conquests (c. 800-c. 1050), social and political organization, arts, paganism and conversion to Christianity from c. 850
The Viking Age in Scandinavia: the Vikings and Varangians, widespread raids and conquests (c. 800-c. 1050), social and political organization, arts, paganism and conversion to Christianity from c. 850
Germany, Burgundy, and Italy: development of the Holy Roman (German) Empire (911-1056)
Germany, Burgundy, and Italy: development of the Holy Roman (German) Empire (911-1056)
Revival of central authority in Germany and intervention in Italy by the Saxon dynasty: Conrad (911-918), rise of the nobility, early opposition from Arnulf of Bavaria, drive against Magyars and Slays, Germanic kingship
Revival of central authority in Germany and intervention in Italy by the Saxon dynasty: Conrad (911-918), rise of the nobility, early opposition from Arnulf of Bavaria, drive against Magyars and Slays, Germanic kingship
Promotion of the German church under Otto I (936-973): his conquest of Italy and establishment of the Holy Roman Empire (962), early Salian kings (1024-56)
Promotion of the German church under Otto I (936-973): his conquest of Italy and establishment of the Holy Roman Empire (962), early Salian kings (1024-56)
Growth in power of the papacy; early years of the commercial cities of Venice in the north and Gaeta, Naples, Sorrento, and Amalfi in Campania; the Arabs in Sicily
Growth in power of the papacy; early years of the commercial cities of Venice in the north and Gaeta, Naples, Sorrento, and Amalfi in Campania; the Arabs in Sicily
The Kingdom of France under the early Capetians (987-1180): the relative weakness of the monarchy vis-à-vis the great feudatories, establishment of an Anglo-French domination in western France under the Plantagenets (Normandy, Anjou, Aquitaine), Capetian attempts to expand the royal domain
The Kingdom of France under the early Capetians (987-1180): the relative weakness of the monarchy vis-à-vis the great feudatories, establishment of an Anglo-French domination in western France under the Plantagenets (Normandy, Anjou, Aquitaine), Capetian attempts to expand the royal domain
Growth of the Christian states in northern Spain (Asturias-Leon-Castile, Navarre, Aragon-Catalonia): their relations with one another and with the Muslims in Spain, the first phase of the Reconquista to the fall of Toledo (1085)
Growth of the Christian states in northern Spain (Asturias-Leon-Castile, Navarre, Aragon-Catalonia): their relations with one another and with the Muslims in Spain, the first phase of the Reconquista to the fall of Toledo (1085)
The sociopolitical and economic structure of early medieval Europe: origins, development, and spread of feudalism; its elements and structure; the manorial economy and mainly localized commerce to c. 1050
The sociopolitical and economic structure of early medieval Europe: origins, development, and spread of feudalism; its elements and structure; the manorial economy and mainly localized commerce to c. 1050
Peoples and states of eastern Europe to c. 1050: early empires and later development of Christianized states
Peoples and states of eastern Europe to c. 1050: early empires and later development of Christianized states
The Slavic peoples: origins, early society and culture, movement into Pannonia and south Russia, plundering expeditions and eventual settlement in the Balkans
The Slavic peoples: origins, early society and culture, movement into Pannonia and south Russia, plundering expeditions and eventual settlement in the Balkans
The eastern European states and peoples within the Byzantine orbit
The eastern European states and peoples within the Byzantine orbit
The Bulgarian domains to 1018: origins, migration into the Balkans (c. AD 650) and mixture with the local Slavic populations, early contacts and wars with Byzantium, adoption of Christianity (870), the First Bulgarian Empire (893-1014) and subsequent conquest by Byzantium
The Bulgarian domains to 1018: origins, migration into the Balkans (c. AD 650) and mixture with the local Slavic populations, early contacts and wars with Byzantium, adoption of Christianity (870), the First Bulgarian Empire (893-1014) and subsequent conquest by Byzantium
Eastern European states within the orbit of Western Christendom
Eastern European states within the orbit of Western Christendom
Developments in Moravia and Bohemia to 1055: the Celtic and Germanic tribes supplanted by Slavic peoples in the 6th century, Czech dominance in the 8th century, unification under the Ptemysl rulers
Developments in Moravia and Bohemia to 1055: the Celtic and Germanic tribes supplanted by Slavic peoples in the 6th century, Czech dominance in the 8th century, unification under the Ptemysl rulers
Unification of Greater Moravia under Mojmir (814): religious conflicts with Frankish clergy and temporary adherence to the Eastern rite, political expansion
Unification of Greater Moravia under Mojmir (814): religious conflicts with Frankish clergy and temporary adherence to the Eastern rite, political expansion
The early Premysl rulers of Bohemia: capital at Prague, ties with Bavaria and the Saxon dynasty, Boleslav I (929-967), Boleslav 11 (967-999), annexation of Moravia under Bi-etislav (1034-55)
The early Premysl rulers of Bohemia: capital at Prague, ties with Bavaria and the Saxon dynasty, Boleslav I (929-967), Boleslav 11 (967-999), annexation of Moravia under Bi-etislav (1034-55)
The Avar Empire and the early Magyar (Hungarian) kingdom to c. 1050: alliance with the Carolingian ruler Arnulf, establishment of the Arpad dynasty, settlement of the central plain, conversion to Christianity, reign of Stephen I (997-1038)
The Avar Empire and the early Magyar (Hungarian) kingdom to c. 1050: alliance with the Carolingian ruler Arnulf, establishment of the Arpad dynasty, settlement of the central plain, conversion to Christianity, reign of Stephen I (997-1038)
Development of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century and Polish conversion to Western Christianity under the dynasty of the Piasts, civil strife and later restoration under Casimir 1 (1039-58)
Development of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century and Polish conversion to Western Christianity under the dynasty of the Piasts, civil strife and later restoration under Casimir 1 (1039-58)
The zenith and incipient decline of the Byzantine Empire (717-1081), the growth of Venice
The zenith and incipient decline of the Byzantine Empire (717-1081), the growth of Venice
The age of Iconoclasm (717-867): the reforms of Leo III the Isaurian, repulse of the Arabs, Bulgar incursions and continued religious dissension under Leo's successors
The age of Iconoclasm (717-867): the reforms of Leo III the Isaurian, repulse of the Arabs, Bulgar incursions and continued religious dissension under Leo's successors
The Formative Period in Islamic History, from AD 622 to c. 1055
The Formative Period in Islamic History, from AD 622 to c. 1055
The rise and spread of Islam and the Arab Empire to the end of the Umayyad dynasty (AD 622750)
The rise and spread of Islam and the Arab Empire to the end of the Umayyad dynasty (AD 622750)
Abu Bakr (632-634) and `Umar 1 (634-644): the tribe of Quraysh; divisions among the followers of Muhammad; the conquest of Iraq and the Sasanid (Persian) Empire and the Byzantine territories of Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Egypt
Abu Bakr (632-634) and `Umar 1 (634-644): the tribe of Quraysh; divisions among the followers of Muhammad; the conquest of Iraq and the Sasanid (Persian) Empire and the Byzantine territories of Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Egypt
`Uthman (644-656) and 'All (656-661): expeditions into North Africa, Armenia, and Persia; social and religious grievances; civil unrest; the origins of Shi` ism
Uthman (644-656) and 'All (656-661): expeditions into North Africa, Armenia, and Persia; social and religious grievances; civil unrest; the origins of Shi ism
The consolidation of the caliphate (661-684) under Mu`awiyah I and his successors: westward orientation of the caliphate and its capital at Damascus, growing opposition to the Umayyads
The consolidation of the caliphate (661-684) under Mu`awiyah I and his successors: westward orientation of the caliphate and its capital at Damascus, growing opposition to the Umayyads
The later Umayyads (715-750): conciliation of state policies with religion, peace and prosperity under Hisham (724-743), disintegration of the empire under his successors and the 'Abbasid revolt
The later Umayyads (715-750): conciliation of state policies with religion, peace and prosperity under Hisham (724-743), disintegration of the empire under his successors and the 'Abbasid revolt
Administration of the Arab lands: utilization of local officials, the position and functions of the caliph, Islamization and Arabization, social classes
Administration of the Arab lands: utilization of local officials, the position and functions of the caliph, Islamization and Arabization, social classes
The 'Abbasid Empire and its successor states (750-c. 1055)
The 'Abbasid Empire and its successor states (750-c. 1055)
Establishment of the new dynasty and its advance under Abu al `Abbas as-Saffah (749-754), al-Mansur (754-775), and al-Mandi (775-785); the `Abbasids at their zenith (786-861)
Establishment of the new dynasty and its advance under Abu al Abbas as-Saffah (749-754), al-Mansur (754-775), and al-Mandi (775-785); the Abbasids at their zenith (786-861)
Eclipse of the `Abbasids and the growth of provincial dynasties from c. 755 to 1055
Eclipse of the `Abbasids and the growth of provincial dynasties from c. 755 to 1055
Conquest of southern and central Spain by Täriq ibn Ziyad (711); defeat of the Muslims near Poitiers by the Frank Charles Martel (732); foundation of the independent emirate by `Abd ar-Rahman I (756-788); political and cultural splendour in the reign of `Abd ar-Rahman II, defeat of the muwallads
Conquest of southern and central Spain by Täriq ibn Ziyad (711); defeat of the Muslims near Poitiers by the Frank Charles Martel (732); foundation of the independent emirate by Abd ar-Rahman I (756-788); political and cultural splendour in the reign of Abd ar-Rahman II, defeat of the muwallads
The Umayyad caliphate under `Abd ar-Rahman an-Nasir III: relations with Arabs, Berbers, and the Christian states in Spain; conquest of Morocco by his successors; the Iddas and internal disorders
The Umayyad caliphate under `Abd ar-Rahman an-Nasir III: relations with Arabs, Berbers, and the Christian states in Spain; conquest of Morocco by his successors; the Iddas and internal disorders
The Fatimid state of North Africa and Syria from 909 to c. 1055: the foundation of the Fatimid caliphate in Tunisia and Algeria, its conquest of Morocco (926) and Egypt (969), and expansion into Syria
The Fatimid state of North Africa and Syria from 909 to c. 1055: the foundation of the Fatimid caliphate in Tunisia and Algeria, its conquest of Morocco (926) and Egypt (969), and expansion into Syria
Other dynasties in North Africa and Syria: the Shiite Idrisids of Morocco (789-926); the Rustamid kingdom in the central Maghrib (787-911); the Aghlabid state in Tunisia, Algeria, and Sicily (800-909); minor dynasties
Other dynasties in North Africa and Syria: the Shiite Idrisids of Morocco (789-926); the Rustamid kingdom in the central Maghrib (787-911); the Aghlabid state in Tunisia, Algeria, and Sicily (800-909); minor dynasties
Other eastern states: the Qarmatians in eastern Arabia (c. 900-1078), the Turkish Qarakhanid dynasty of Ma Wara 'an-Nahr (Transoxania) and eastern Turkistan (922-
Other eastern states: the Qarmatians in eastern Arabia (c. 900-1078), the Turkish Qarakhanid dynasty of Ma Wara 'an-Nahr (Transoxania) and eastern Turkistan (922-
Western Christendom in the High and Later Middle Ages (c. 1050—c. 1500)
Western Christendom in the High and Later Middle Ages (c. 1050—c. 1500)
The medieval western European revival and the economy, society, and culture of Western Christendom in the High Middle Ages
The medieval western European revival and the economy, society, and culture of Western Christendom in the High Middle Ages
Western European society in the High Middle Ages: the three social orders (priests and monks; warriors; peasants and labourers); the feudal nobility; the bourgeoisie; the status of women
Western European society in the High Middle Ages: the three social orders (priests and monks; warriors; peasants and labourers); the feudal nobility; the bourgeoisie; the status of women
Growth of agricultural productivity and population: revival of a money economy, manufacturing, and the commercial effects of the Crusades; revival of towns and population movements
Growth of agricultural productivity and population: revival of a money economy, manufacturing, and the commercial effects of the Crusades; revival of towns and population movements
The church in medieval society: growth of papal hegemony, reform movements (eremitism, Cistercians, mendicant orders), ecumenical councils, emergence of the laity, struggle against heretics (Inquisition from 1233), role of religion in medieval society
The church in medieval society: growth of papal hegemony, reform movements (eremitism, Cistercians, mendicant orders), ecumenical councils, emergence of the laity, struggle against heretics (Inquisition from 1233), role of religion in medieval society
Kingship as the ideal Christian form of government: its relationship to sacrality and to the growing bureacracy; the three main forms of government inherited from antiquity: monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny
Kingship as the ideal Christian form of government: its relationship to sacrality and to the growing bureacracy; the three main forms of government inherited from antiquity: monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny
The Holy Roman Empire, the papacy, and Italy from c. 1050 to c. 1300
The Holy Roman Empire, the papacy, and Italy from c. 1050 to c. 1300
Church reform in the 10th and 1 1 th centuries and the clash between the papacy and the emperors over lay investiture (at its height between the emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII): the resulting incipient decline of German monarchical authority under the Salian emperors
Church reform in the 10th and 1 1 th centuries and the clash between the papacy and the emperors over lay investiture (at its height between the emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII): the resulting incipient decline of German monarchical authority under the Salian emperors
The growth of communes in northern Italy, the status of German imperial power, the political role of the papacy in Italy, the commercial expansion of Italian cities (e.g., Genoa, Pisa), continued growth of Venetian maritime power
The growth of communes in northern Italy, the status of German imperial power, the political role of the papacy in Italy, the commercial expansion of Italian cities (e.g., Genoa, Pisa), continued growth of Venetian maritime power
Steady inroads of the German princes into German monarchical authority: colonization of Slavic territory, development of commercial centres (e.g., Lubeck), the reign of Frederick I Barbarossa and Frederick II, extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and the Great Interregnum (1250-73), the election and reign of Rudolf of Habsburg
Steady inroads of the German princes into German monarchical authority: colonization of Slavic territory, development of commercial centres (e.g., Lubeck), the reign of Frederick I Barbarossa and Frederick II, extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and the Great Interregnum (1250-73), the election and reign of Rudolf of Habsburg
The Kingdom of Sicily: centralized government, ethnic mixture, Palermo, control by the Hohenstaufens (1194-1266), the Angevin conquest and expulsion (1282), the advent of Aragonese control
The Kingdom of Sicily: centralized government, ethnic mixture, Palermo, control by the Hohenstaufens (1194-1266), the Angevin conquest and expulsion (1282), the advent of Aragonese control
The decline of German imperial control in northern Italy and the continued development of the communes (e.g., Milan, Pisa, Florence, Siena): their internal and external conflicts
The decline of German imperial control in northern Italy and the continued development of the communes (e.g., Milan, Pisa, Florence, Siena): their internal and external conflicts
Continued commercial expansion of Italian cities: Venetian expansion in the Levant and aid to the Normans in the conquest of Byzantium (1204), commercial inroads into the Levantine trade by Genoa and Pisa
Continued commercial expansion of Italian cities: Venetian expansion in the Levant and aid to the Normans in the conquest of Byzantium (1204), commercial inroads into the Levantine trade by Genoa and Pisa
The growth of the Kingdom of France under the later Capetian dynasty (1180-1328), the Low Countries
The growth of the Kingdom of France under the later Capetian dynasty (1180-1328), the Low Countries
Louis VIII (1223-26) and Louis IX (1226-70): institution of the granting of appanages to younger sons of kings, the Albigensian Crusade, rise of bureaucracy, attitudes toward the clergy and the lay nobility; Louis's efforts for peace, justice, and morality; his canonization in 1297
Louis VIII (1223-26) and Louis IX (1226-70): institution of the granting of appanages to younger sons of kings, the Albigensian Crusade, rise of bureaucracy, attitudes toward the clergy and the lay nobility; Louis's efforts for peace, justice, and morality; his canonization in 1297
The later Capetians: Philip IV the Fair (1285-1314), claims of the monarchy, beginnings of the States General, conflict with Boniface VIII, suppression of the Templars
The later Capetians: Philip IV the Fair (1285-1314), claims of the monarchy, beginnings of the States General, conflict with Boniface VIII, suppression of the Templars
Economy, society, and culture in the 13th century: increase in population, growth of towns and urban prosperity, rural life, religion, culture and learning
Economy, society, and culture in the 13th century: increase in population, growth of towns and urban prosperity, rural life, religion, culture and learning
The Spanish Christian kingdoms of Castile and Leon, Aragon (including Barcelona and Catalonia), Portugal, and Navarre (1035–c. 1260): their expansion into Muslim territory, their mutual rivalries, their ethnic-cultural mixtures, and their internal political development; the role of the church
The Spanish Christian kingdoms of Castile and Leon, Aragon (including Barcelona and Catalonia), Portugal, and Navarre (1035–c. 1260): their expansion into Muslim territory, their mutual rivalries, their ethnic-cultural mixtures, and their internal political development; the role of the church
The rise of Castile and Aragon and the expulsion of the Muslims, led especially by the rulers of Aragon (James I, 1213-76) and Castile (Ferdinand III, 1217-52)
The rise of Castile and Aragon and the expulsion of the Muslims, led especially by the rulers of Aragon (James I, 1213-76) and Castile (Ferdinand III, 1217-52)
Society, economy, and culture: administration of the Spanish kingdoms; development of feudalism, growth of towns, and appearance of trade and industry; establishment of the Cortes; foundation of the universities of Valencia and Salamanca
Society, economy, and culture: administration of the Spanish kingdoms; development of feudalism, growth of towns, and appearance of trade and industry; establishment of the Cortes; foundation of the universities of Valencia and Salamanca
The Kingdom of England and its continental dependencies from the Norman Conquest to the death of Edward I; Scotland, Wales, and Ireland (1066-1307)
The Kingdom of England and its continental dependencies from the Norman Conquest to the death of Edward I; Scotland, Wales, and Ireland (1066-1307)
The Norman Conquest: introduction of feudalism and the development of royal administration under William I the Conqueror (1066-87) and his immediate successors
The Norman Conquest: introduction of feudalism and the development of royal administration under William I the Conqueror (1066-87) and his immediate successors
The reign of Henry II ( 1 1 54-89): military and administrative reforms, Henry's conflict with the church and the struggle with Becket, the rebellions of Henry's sons
The reign of Henry II ( 1 1 54-89): military and administrative reforms, Henry's conflict with the church and the struggle with Becket, the rebellions of Henry's sons
Henry III (1216-72) and Edward I (1272-1307): Simon de Montfort and the Barons' War; Edward's restoration of royal power and his legal, administrative, and military policies; the growth of Parliament, development of Oxford and Cambridge universities
Henry III (1216-72) and Edward I (1272-1307): Simon de Montfort and the Barons' War; Edward's restoration of royal power and his legal, administrative, and military policies; the growth of Parliament, development of Oxford and Cambridge universities
The Slavic and Magyar states of Western Christendom (c. 1050-c. 1300)
The Slavic and Magyar states of Western Christendom (c. 1050-c. 1300)
Poland: the reigns of Boleslaw II (1058-79) and Boleslaw III (1102-38), the division of Poland between Boleslaw III's sons, the seniority system, territorial losses, the early role of the Teutonic Order in eastern Europe, internal developments
Poland: the reigns of Boleslaw II (1058-79) and Boleslaw III (1102-38), the division of Poland between Boleslaw III's sons, the seniority system, territorial losses, the early role of the Teutonic Order in eastern Europe, internal developments
Bohemia under the later Piemysl rulers (1055-1306): struggles within the ruling family, privileges secured from the Holy Roman emperor, territorial expansion, losses to Rudolf of Habsburg
Bohemia under the later Piemysl rulers (1055-1306): struggles within the ruling family, privileges secured from the Holy Roman emperor, territorial expansion, losses to Rudolf of Habsburg
Political and economic growth: German immigration, founding of urban communities, expansion under Otakar II (1253-78) into Austria, silver mining and coinage
Political and economic growth: German immigration, founding of urban communities, expansion under Otakar II (1253-78) into Austria, silver mining and coinage
Hungary: the early kings, expansion into Transylvania and Dalmatia, the nobility, Golden Bull (1222), Mongol invasion (1241), extinction of the Arpdcl dynasty in 1301
Hungary: the early kings, expansion into Transylvania and Dalmatia, the nobility, Golden Bull (1222), Mongol invasion (1241), extinction of the Arpdcl dynasty in 1301
The decline of medieval European political institutions, economy, and culture and the incipient transition to the modern age (c. 1300-c. 1500)
The decline of medieval European political institutions, economy, and culture and the incipient transition to the modern age (c. 1300-c. 1500)
The culture of the late Middle Ages in western Europe
The culture of the late Middle Ages in western Europe
Late medieval intellectual developments: political theory, law, and the decline of ideals of imperial unity and papal supremacy; the rising power of national monarchies; decline of Scholasticism; science; witchcraft
Late medieval intellectual developments: political theory, law, and the decline of ideals of imperial unity and papal supremacy; the rising power of national monarchies; decline of Scholasticism; science; witchcraft
The exaggeration of chivalry and declining importance of the feudal nobility in the face of changing military technology and organization: growing influence of the bourgeoisie, growth of royal government
The exaggeration of chivalry and declining importance of the feudal nobility in the face of changing military technology and organization: growing influence of the bourgeoisie, growth of royal government
Gradual inflation and continued development of capitalism: peasant revolts; economic. social, and political effects of the Black Death (1347-50) and subsequent epidemics of the plague; development of a great maritime trade between the North Sea and the Mediterranean; progress of enclosures; recovery of the population and economy after the middle of the 15th century
Gradual inflation and continued development of capitalism: peasant revolts; economic. social, and political effects of the Black Death (1347-50) and subsequent epidemics of the plague; development of a great maritime trade between the North Sea and the Mediterranean; progress of enclosures; recovery of the population and economy after the middle of the 15th century
The church in the later Middle Ages: papal monarchy and taxation, the Avignon papacy (1309-77) and the Great Schism (1378-1417), the conciliar movement and other reform movements with regard to the church, mysticism
The church in the later Middle Ages: papal monarchy and taxation, the Avignon papacy (1309-77) and the Great Schism (1378-1417), the conciliar movement and other reform movements with regard to the church, mysticism
Germany, Bohemia, and the Swiss Confederation (c. 1300–c. 1500)
Germany, Bohemia, and the Swiss Confederation (c. 1300–c. 1500)
Limitations on the imperial office and the continued ascendancy of the princes in Germany: internal strife between the cities and the princes, the Habsburg and Luxemburg emperors, the division of the Habsburg lands and the enhancement of Habsburg power and influence in Europe by 1500
Limitations on the imperial office and the continued ascendancy of the princes in Germany: internal strife between the cities and the princes, the Habsburg and Luxemburg emperors, the division of the Habsburg lands and the enhancement of Habsburg power and influence in Europe by 1500
Beginning of the religious reform movement (c. 1360): the Chapel Bethlehem's preachers, the activities of Jan Hus and his execution at the Council of Constance (1415)
Beginning of the religious reform movement (c. 1360): the Chapel Bethlehem's preachers, the activities of Jan Hus and his execution at the Council of Constance (1415)
The struggle between Sigismund and the Hussites: the Four Articles of Prague, 2iika's leadership of the Hussites, the Hussite preponderance (1437-71), George of Podebrady
The struggle between Sigismund and the Hussites: the Four Articles of Prague, 2iika's leadership of the Hussites, the Hussite preponderance (1437-71), George of Podebrady
Early Swiss history, development of the Swiss Confederation after 1291, struggle against the Habsburgs, the French invasion and the Peace of Constance (1446)
Early Swiss history, development of the Swiss Confederation after 1291, struggle against the Habsburgs, the French invasion and the Peace of Constance (1446)
Social and political developments in the period 1300-1400: withdrawal of imperial and papal authority, Italian society, the crises of the 14th century (e.g., the Black Death, economic decline, urban unrest)
Social and political developments in the period 1300-1400: withdrawal of imperial and papal authority, Italian society, the crises of the 14th century (e.g., the Black Death, economic decline, urban unrest)
Naples, Sicily, and the other Italian states (e.g., Angevin rule in Naples until its union with Sicily in 1442 under Alfonso V of Aragon); Savoy; Genoa; Verona
Naples, Sicily, and the other Italian states (e.g., Angevin rule in Naples until its union with Sicily in 1442 under Alfonso V of Aragon); Savoy; Genoa; Verona
The crisis of Florentine republicanism: the threat from Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan and his successors, Florentine historiography, rule by the Medici
The crisis of Florentine republicanism: the threat from Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan and his successors, Florentine historiography, rule by the Medici
From the outbreak of the war (1337) to the Treaty of Brêtigny (1360): the reign of Philip VI (1328-50), the Crecy campaign and its aftermath (1346-54), negotiations during John II the Good's captivity (1356-60), burgeoning power of the estates and revolt of the peasants; the Parisian revolt and the bourgeois leader Etienne Marcel (1358)
From the outbreak of the war (1337) to the Treaty of Brêtigny (1360): the reign of Philip VI (1328-50), the Crecy campaign and its aftermath (1346-54), negotiations during John II the Good's captivity (1356-60), burgeoning power of the estates and revolt of the peasants; the Parisian revolt and the bourgeois leader Etienne Marcel (1358)
From the Treaty of Brêtigny (1360) to the accession of Henry V of England (1413): Charles V (1364-80), the dispute over Flanders, temporary peace, Charles VI (13801422), struggle between Burgundians and Armagnacs
From the Treaty of Brêtigny (1360) to the accession of Henry V of England (1413): Charles V (1364-80), the dispute over Flanders, temporary peace, Charles VI (13801422), struggle between Burgundians and Armagnacs
From the accession of Henry V (1413) to the siege of Orleans (1428-29): Charles VII (1422-61); France divided between the dauphin Charles. Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Henry V of England
From the accession of Henry V (1413) to the siege of Orleans (1428-29): Charles VII (1422-61); France divided between the dauphin Charles. Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Henry V of England
Recovery and reunification (1429-83) and the expulsion of the English: Joan of Arc and the stirring of French national feeling, reconquest of Maine and Normandy, conquest of Guyenne (1453), final settlement at Picquigny (1475)
Recovery and reunification (1429-83) and the expulsion of the English: Joan of Arc and the stirring of French national feeling, reconquest of Maine and Normandy, conquest of Guyenne (1453), final settlement at Picquigny (1475)
Administrative and military reforms and the strengthening of royal power vis-a-vis the nobility and towns under Charles VII (1422-61) and Louis XI (1461-83): foreign, fiscal, and ecclesiastical policies; social and cultural developments: the States General (1484) and the failure of representative monarchy
Administrative and military reforms and the strengthening of royal power vis-a-vis the nobility and towns under Charles VII (1422-61) and Louis XI (1461-83): foreign, fiscal, and ecclesiastical policies; social and cultural developments: the States General (1484) and the failure of representative monarchy
The Low Countries: continued growth of towns, industry, and commerce, with attendant class conflicts and interference by the French monarchy; unification under the House of Burgundy; Burgundian administration
The Low Countries: continued growth of towns, industry, and commerce, with attendant class conflicts and interference by the French monarchy; unification under the House of Burgundy; Burgundian administration
England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland (c. 1307-c. 1500)
England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland (c. 1307-c. 1500)
Royal decline under Edward II (1307-27) and its restoration under Edward III (132777): the Hundred Years' War, domestic achievements, the crises of Edward III's later reign
Royal decline under Edward II (1307-27) and its restoration under Edward III (132777): the Hundred Years' War, domestic achievements, the crises of Edward III's later reign
Henry IV (1399-1413), Henry V (1413-22), and Henry VI (1422-61 and 1470-71): rebellions under Henry IV and his relations with Parliament, domestic rivalries and the loss of France under Henry VI, Cade's rebellion and the Wars of the Roses
Henry IV (1399-1413), Henry V (1413-22), and Henry VI (1422-61 and 1470-71): rebellions under Henry IV and his relations with Parliament, domestic rivalries and the loss of France under Henry VI, Cade's rebellion and the Wars of the Roses
Castile and Leon: continued pressure on the Muslims under Alfonso XI (1312-50). increasing power of the Cortes, development of the woolen industry, literary achievements
Castile and Leon: continued pressure on the Muslims under Alfonso XI (1312-50). increasing power of the Cortes, development of the woolen industry, literary achievements
The Aragon Confederation (Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia): acquisition of Sicily (1282) and growth of Aragon as a Mediterranean power; the Cortes, law, and administration; acquisition of the Kingdom of Naples (1442) under Alfonso V (1416-58)
The Aragon Confederation (Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia): acquisition of Sicily (1282) and growth of Aragon as a Mediterranean power; the Cortes, law, and administration; acquisition of the Kingdom of Naples (1442) under Alfonso V (1416-58)
The union of Aragon and Castile-Leon under Ferdinand and Isabella: strengthening of their positions vis-à-vis the nobility, the Inquisition and the treatment of Jews, conquest of Granada (1492) and acquisition of Naples (1503)
The union of Aragon and Castile-Leon under Ferdinand and Isabella: strengthening of their positions vis-à-vis the nobility, the Inquisition and the treatment of Jews, conquest of Granada (1492) and acquisition of Naples (1503)
Portugal: development of the monarchy under the House of Avis (1383-1580); alliance with England; consolidation of the monarchy and establishment of its overseas empire under John I (1385-1433), Prince Henry the Navigator, and Manuel I (1495-1521)
Portugal: development of the monarchy under the House of Avis (1383-1580); alliance with England; consolidation of the monarchy and establishment of its overseas empire under John I (1385-1433), Prince Henry the Navigator, and Manuel I (1495-1521)
The Mongol invasions (1241-42) and reestablishment of the Kingdom of Poland (1253-1382): Wladyslaw I and the struggle with the Teutonic Order; Casimir III and Louis I of Hungary; social classes, the church, and policies toward the Jews
The Mongol invasions (1241-42) and reestablishment of the Kingdom of Poland (1253-1382): Wladyslaw I and the struggle with the Teutonic Order; Casimir III and Louis I of Hungary; social classes, the church, and policies toward the Jews
The Jagiellon dynasty (1382-1492): the union of Poland and Lithuania (1385-86), extension of the empire, growth of parliamentarianism dominated by the nobility
The Jagiellon dynasty (1382-1492): the union of Poland and Lithuania (1385-86), extension of the empire, growth of parliamentarianism dominated by the nobility
The Crusading Movement, the Islamic States of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Europe, and the States of Eastern Christendom from c. 1050 to c. 1480
The Crusading Movement, the Islamic States of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Europe, and the States of Eastern Christendom from c. 1050 to c. 1480
The expansion of western Europe in the crusading movement and the Muslim response, the states of Eastern Christendom and the crusader states from c. 1050 to c. 1480
The expansion of western Europe in the crusading movement and the Muslim response, the states of Eastern Christendom and the crusader states from c. 1050 to c. 1480
The crusading era and the states of Eastern Christendom (c. 1050-c. 1480)
The crusading era and the states of Eastern Christendom (c. 1050-c. 1480)
Background of the First Crusade: overcrowding in Christian Latin Europe and the wish of the church to divert the violence between Christians to an attack on the infidels, religious renewal in Europe, disruption of the pilgrimage routes by the Muslims, role of papal leadership at the Council of Clermont (1095), preparations for the Crusade and its participants
Background of the First Crusade: overcrowding in Christian Latin Europe and the wish of the church to divert the violence between Christians to an attack on the infidels, religious renewal in Europe, disruption of the pilgrimage routes by the Muslims, role of papal leadership at the Council of Clermont (1095), preparations for the Crusade and its participants
The Second (1147-48) and Third (1188-92) crusades: Christian colonization in the East and export of feudalism, the crusader states to 1187, the institutions of the First Kingdom, the magnates of the Third Crusade
The Second (1147-48) and Third (1188-92) crusades: Christian colonization in the East and export of feudalism, the crusader states to 1187, the institutions of the First Kingdom, the magnates of the Third Crusade
The crusades of Louis IX of France (1248-50, 1270), final loss of the crusader states, Kingdom of Cyprus; survival of the spirit of the crusades among Latin Christians
The crusades of Louis IX of France (1248-50, 1270), final loss of the crusader states, Kingdom of Cyprus; survival of the spirit of the crusades among Latin Christians
The Slavic states of Eastern Christendom from c. 1300 to c. 1500
The Slavic states of Eastern Christendom from c. 1300 to c. 1500
Russia: the rise of the Muscovite state under the suzerainty of the Golden Horde and its later successful revolt (1380), expansion and establishment of Moscow as the leading Russian power under Tsar Ivan III (1462-1505), foreign policy
Russia: the rise of the Muscovite state under the suzerainty of the Golden Horde and its later successful revolt (1380), expansion and establishment of Moscow as the leading Russian power under Tsar Ivan III (1462-1505), foreign policy
The Balkans: growing strength of Serbia vis-a-vis the Byzantine and Bulgarian empires; subjugation of Albania, Macedonia, and Bulgaria under Stefan Dugan in the 14th century; Romania; subjection to the Ottoman Turks by 1453
The Balkans: growing strength of Serbia vis-a-vis the Byzantine and Bulgarian empires; subjugation of Albania, Macedonia, and Bulgaria under Stefan Dugan in the 14th century; Romania; subjection to the Ottoman Turks by 1453
Restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaeologus dynasty (1261), efforts to restore Byzantine power in the Balkans, foreign relations, cultural life
Restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaeologus dynasty (1261), efforts to restore Byzantine power in the Balkans, foreign relations, cultural life
The Islamic states of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Europe (c. 1050-c. 1480): Turkish and Kurdish dynasties, the Mongol invasions, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire
The Islamic states of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Europe (c. 1050-c. 1480): Turkish and Kurdish dynasties, the Mongol invasions, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire
Origins and conversion of the Seljuqs to Islam and their establishment in Khorasan under Mahmud of Ghazna, the foundation of the Seljuq state under Toghril Beg (1038-63), his conquest of Iran and Iraq and establishment of a protectorate over the 'Abbasid caliphate
Origins and conversion of the Seljuqs to Islam and their establishment in Khorasan under Mahmud of Ghazna, the foundation of the Seljuq state under Toghril Beg (1038-63), his conquest of Iran and Iraq and establishment of a protectorate over the 'Abbasid caliphate
Extension of Seljuq hegemony into Syria and Palestine and victory over the Byzantines, partition and partial breakup of the empire after 1092, Seljuq restoration of Sunni supremacy and patronage of the Iranian cultural revival
Extension of Seljuq hegemony into Syria and Palestine and victory over the Byzantines, partition and partial breakup of the empire after 1092, Seljuq restoration of Sunni supremacy and patronage of the Iranian cultural revival
Great Seljuq successor states (c. 1100-c. 1250): the Zangid atabegs in Syria and northern Iraq, the Ismaili Assassins in Iran and Syria (c. 1090-c. 1250), the Khwarezm shahs of Iran and Central Asia (1097-1234), other dynasties
Great Seljuq successor states (c. 1100-c. 1250): the Zangid atabegs in Syria and northern Iraq, the Ismaili Assassins in Iran and Syria (c. 1090-c. 1250), the Khwarezm shahs of Iran and Central Asia (1097-1234), other dynasties
The foundation of the independent sultanate of Rum from territory conquered from Byzantium in Anatolia (from 1071), commercial prosperity and territorial expansion in the 13th century, the Turkish Danishmendid state in northern Anatolia (c. 1071-1177) and its absorption by the Seljuqs
The foundation of the independent sultanate of Rum from territory conquered from Byzantium in Anatolia (from 1071), commercial prosperity and territorial expansion in the 13th century, the Turkish Danishmendid state in northern Anatolia (c. 1071-1177) and its absorption by the Seljuqs
Southwest Asia and eastern Europe after the Mongolian invasions
Southwest Asia and eastern Europe after the Mongolian invasions
The Mongolian II Khans in Iraq and Iran (c. 1250-1353): trade, administration, and eventual conversion to Islam: the Timurids and other Il Khan successor states
The Mongolian II Khans in Iraq and Iran (c. 1250-1353): trade, administration, and eventual conversion to Islam: the Timurids and other Il Khan successor states
The khanate of the Golden Horde in eastern Europe (from 1240): adoption of Islam, gradual absorption of the Mongols into the Turkish alas to form the Tatar people, the zenith of the empire in the early 14th century, Timur's invasion (1395) and its later partition
The khanate of the Golden Horde in eastern Europe (from 1240): adoption of Islam, gradual absorption of the Mongols into the Turkish alas to form the Tatar people, the zenith of the empire in the early 14th century, Timur's invasion (1395) and its later partition
Origins and expansion of the Ottoman state (c. 1300-1402): its expansion in Anatolia and conquest of Serbia and Bulgaria in the 14th century, defeat by Timur (1402), restoration of the empire and beginning of the Ottoman challenge to the European states by the invasion of Hungary (1434), conquest of Constantinople (1453) and conquest of Anatolia
Origins and expansion of the Ottoman state (c. 1300-1402): its expansion in Anatolia and conquest of Serbia and Bulgaria in the 14th century, defeat by Timur (1402), restoration of the empire and beginning of the Ottoman challenge to the European states by the invasion of Hungary (1434), conquest of Constantinople (1453) and conquest of Anatolia
Establishment of the AyvObid dynasty in Egypt and expansion of its control over Muslim Syria under Saladin ( 1171-93): conflict with the crusader states, pacific policies of his successors
Establishment of the AyvObid dynasty in Egypt and expansion of its control over Muslim Syria under Saladin ( 1171-93): conflict with the crusader states, pacific policies of his successors
Displacement of the AyyUbids by the Turkish MamlUks in 1250, the Bahri Mamluks' resistance to the Mongols and extension of European power in Syria under Qutuz and Baybars 1 (1260-77), their displacement by the Burji Mamlaks in 1382, Mamlak administration and military institutions, the continued maintenance of Sunni orthodoxy
Displacement of the AyyUbids by the Turkish MamlUks in 1250, the Bahri Mamluks' resistance to the Mongols and extension of European power in Syria under Qutuz and Baybars 1 (1260-77), their displacement by the Burji Mamlaks in 1382, Mamlak administration and military institutions, the continued maintenance of Sunni orthodoxy
Almoravid origins as a religious reform federation in the western Sudan, conquest of Morocco and western Algeria under Abu Bakr and Yasuf ibn Tashufin (1062-92), the latter's intervention in Spain against the expanding Christian states, Almoravid conquest of Muslim Spain (1090-91), weakness and decline in the face of the renewal of the Reconquista and the Almohad revolt in North Africa (c. 1123)
Almoravid origins as a religious reform federation in the western Sudan, conquest of Morocco and western Algeria under Abu Bakr and Yasuf ibn Tashufin (1062-92), the latter's intervention in Spain against the expanding Christian states, Almoravid conquest of Muslim Spain (1090-91), weakness and decline in the face of the renewal of the Reconquista and the Almohad revolt in North Africa (c. 1123)
The Almohad religious reform movement under the Berber Muhammad ibn Taman and the extension of Almohad control over Muslim Spain (capital at Seville) and the Maghrib (1145-72), initial containment of the Reconquista and later disintegration of the empire in Spain after 1212, subsequent eclipse in the Maghrib, Almohad patronage of philosophy and the arts
The Almohad religious reform movement under the Berber Muhammad ibn Taman and the extension of Almohad control over Muslim Spain (capital at Seville) and the Maghrib (1145-72), initial containment of the Reconquista and later disintegration of the empire in Spain after 1212, subsequent eclipse in the Maghrib, Almohad patronage of philosophy and the arts
The Flafsids in Tunisia, the `Abd al-Wadid kingdom of Tilimsan, the Marinids in eastern Morocco and their problems with the Arabs, political life, the Nasrid kingdom of Granada
The Flafsids in Tunisia, the `Abd al-Wadid kingdom of Tilimsan, the Marinids in eastern Morocco and their problems with the Arabs, political life, the Nasrid kingdom of Granada
Peoples and Traditional Civilizations of East, Central, South, and Southeast Asia
Peoples and Traditional Civilizations of East, Central, South, and Southeast Asia
China from the Late T'ang (AD 755) to the Late Ch'ing (c. 1839)
China from the Late T'ang (AD 755) to the Late Ch'ing (c. 1839)
The late T'ang dynasty, the Ten Kingdoms, the Five Dynasties, and the Sung dynasty
The late T'ang dynasty, the Ten Kingdoms, the Five Dynasties, and the Sung dynasty
The late T'ang (755-907): the rebellion of An Lu-shan (755-757) and its effects, provincial separatism, attempts to restore central authority, growth in power of provincial warlords
The late T'ang (755-907): the rebellion of An Lu-shan (755-757) and its effects, provincial separatism, attempts to restore central authority, growth in power of provincial warlords
The more permanent Ten Kingdoms: the Tanguts; the Khitan, or Liao, empire; the kingdoms of Wu, the Southern T'ang, the Southern P'ing, the Ch'u, the Earlier and Later Shu, the Min, the Southern Han, and the Wu-yiieh
The more permanent Ten Kingdoms: the Tanguts; the Khitan, or Liao, empire; the kingdoms of Wu, the Southern T'ang, the Southern P'ing, the Ch'u, the Earlier and Later Shu, the Min, the Southern Han, and the Wu-yiieh
Unification and centralization of the empire: development of the Imperial civil service in T'ai-tsu's reign (960-976), further consolidation under Chen Tsung (998-1022)
Unification and centralization of the empire: development of the Imperial civil service in T'ai-tsu's reign (960-976), further consolidation under Chen Tsung (998-1022)
Sung cultural and economic developments; e.g., resurgence of Neo-Confucianism, visual arts and music, scholarship, historiography, invention of printing, manufacturing advances
Sung cultural and economic developments; e.g., resurgence of Neo-Confucianism, visual arts and music, scholarship, historiography, invention of printing, manufacturing advances
Mongol-Chinese rule under the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
Mongol-Chinese rule under the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
The Ming and Ch'ing dynasties to c. 1839: the tribute system, relative stability, ethnocentrism, and emphasis on cultural unity
The Ming and Ch'ing dynasties to c. 1839: the tribute system, relative stability, ethnocentrism, and emphasis on cultural unity
Peasant uprisings and the foundation of the dynasty (1368) by Chu Yuan-chang (Hung-wu): pattern of dynastic succession, gradual degeneration of Ming government
Peasant uprisings and the foundation of the dynasty (1368) by Chu Yuan-chang (Hung-wu): pattern of dynastic succession, gradual degeneration of Ming government
Mid-Ch'ing social and economic developments: the role of religious associations, expansion of industry, social unrest, intellectual and cultural advances
Mid-Ch'ing social and economic developments: the role of religious associations, expansion of industry, social unrest, intellectual and cultural advances
Cultural developments; e.g., government interference in scholarship; introduction of Western sciences; advances in music, literature, and the visual arts
Cultural developments; e.g., government interference in scholarship; introduction of Western sciences; advances in music, literature, and the visual arts
The peoples of the steppes, their cultures, and their interactions with neighbouring civilizations; the geography and ethnography of Inner Asia; archaeological and documentary historical sources; historiographic problems
The peoples of the steppes, their cultures, and their interactions with neighbouring civilizations; the geography and ethnography of Inner Asia; archaeological and documentary historical sources; historiographic problems
The peoples and states of Inner Asia to c. AD 1200
The peoples and states of Inner Asia to c. AD 1200
The Hsiung-nu tribal confederation dominating Mongolia, southern Siberia, and eastern Turkistan from c. 400 Bc to c. AD 50; pressure on it and its destruction by Han China
The Hsiung-nu tribal confederation dominating Mongolia, southern Siberia, and eastern Turkistan from c. 400 Bc to c. AD 50; pressure on it and its destruction by Han China
The Manchurian tribes: attempts at unification, fluctuating relations with the Chinese until the advent of the Mongols
The Manchurian tribes: attempts at unification, fluctuating relations with the Chinese until the advent of the Mongols
The Tung-hu tribes and Chinese presence in Manchuria to the 3rd century ac, ascendancy of the Hsien-pei and establishment of the Yin kingdom by Mu-jung Hui (AD 352), the Parhae (P'o-hai) kingdom (AD 712)
The Tung-hu tribes and Chinese presence in Manchuria to the 3rd century ac, ascendancy of the Hsien-pei and establishment of the Yin kingdom by Mu-jung Hui (AD 352), the Parhae (P'o-hai) kingdom (AD 712)
The Khitan and Juchen empires: penetration into China, Korea, and Mongolia; Juchen conquest of Chinese Sung territory; capital at Yen-ching (Peking); conquest by Mongols in 1234
The Khitan and Juchen empires: penetration into China, Korea, and Mongolia; Juchen conquest of Chinese Sung territory; capital at Yen-ching (Peking); conquest by Mongols in 1234
East Turkistan (Kashgaria): Kyrgyz, Uighur tribes, Qarakhanid rule in the 10th century, Mongol conquest and rule in the 13th century, conquest by Manchus (1758-59)
East Turkistan (Kashgaria): Kyrgyz, Uighur tribes, Qarakhanid rule in the 10th century, Mongol conquest and rule in the 13th century, conquest by Manchus (1758-59)
The Mongolian and Tungusic states from the 10th to the 13th century: the Liao (Khitan) empire and the later Chin (Juchen) state in North China and Manchuria (947-1125), the Western Liao (Kara khitai) of Turkistan (1124-1211)
The Mongolian and Tungusic states from the 10th to the 13th century: the Liao (Khitan) empire and the later Chin (Juchen) state in North China and Manchuria (947-1125), the Western Liao (Kara khitai) of Turkistan (1124-1211)
The development of Afghanistan to c. 1700: rule by Achaemenians and Greeks to c. 1st century AD, various nomadic rulers, advent of Muslim control in the 7th century, Mongol conquest (1221), later rule by Timurids and Mughals
The development of Afghanistan to c. 1700: rule by Achaemenians and Greeks to c. 1st century AD, various nomadic rulers, advent of Muslim control in the 7th century, Mongol conquest (1221), later rule by Timurids and Mughals
Timur's (Tamerlane's) establishment of the Timurid dynasty (1370-1506): his capital at Samarkand; his conquests; Turkistan, Afghanistan, and Transoxania under his successors
Timur's (Tamerlane's) establishment of the Timurid dynasty (1370-1506): his capital at Samarkand; his conquests; Turkistan, Afghanistan, and Transoxania under his successors
Mongolia from the 13th to the 18th century: internecine strife, the revival of Buddhism, subjection to Yuan China and later autonomy and disunity until the ascendancy of the Manchus (Ch'ing China) in the 18th century
Mongolia from the 13th to the 18th century: internecine strife, the revival of Buddhism, subjection to Yuan China and later autonomy and disunity until the ascendancy of the Manchus (Ch'ing China) in the 18th century
The legendary origins of the Tibetan people, consolidation of Tibet under Gnam-ri srong-btsan (c. AD 570-619), later rulers to the 9th century, introduction of Buddhism, cultural developments
The legendary origins of the Tibetan people, consolidation of Tibet under Gnam-ri srong-btsan (c. AD 570-619), later rulers to the 9th century, introduction of Buddhism, cultural developments
Tibetan disunity from the 9th to the 14th century: eclipse and resurgence of Buddhism, conquest by Mongols, developments in literature and the visual arts
Tibetan disunity from the 9th to the 14th century: eclipse and resurgence of Buddhism, conquest by Mongols, developments in literature and the visual arts
The waning of nomad power from the 16th to the 18th century: the Manchu conquest of China and parts of Inner Asia, the Afghans as the last nomad power in Inner Asia, Russian expansion into Siberia and western Turkistan
The waning of nomad power from the 16th to the 18th century: the Manchu conquest of China and parts of Inner Asia, the Afghans as the last nomad power in Inner Asia, Russian expansion into Siberia and western Turkistan
Japan to the Meiji Restoration (1868). and Korea to 1910
Japan to the Meiji Restoration (1868). and Korea to 1910
Introduction: the character and achievements of Japanese and Korean civilizations, the geography and ethnography of Japan and Korea, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
Introduction: the character and achievements of Japanese and Korean civilizations, the geography and ethnography of Japan and Korea, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
Prehistoric cultures: nonceramic cultures in the Paleolithic Period, Thmon (5th or 4th millennium to c. 250 sc) and Yayoi (c. 250 sc–AD 250) Neolithic pottery cultures, agriculture and the influx of Chinese culture
Prehistoric cultures: nonceramic cultures in the Paleolithic Period, Thmon (5th or 4th millennium to c. 250 sc) and Yayoi (c. 250 sc–AD 250) Neolithic pottery cultures, agriculture and the influx of Chinese culture
The ancient period: unification of Japan under the Yamato court and subsequent governments (c. 250-710)
The ancient period: unification of Japan under the Yamato court and subsequent governments (c. 250-710)
The governmental reforms of ShOtoku Taishi of the Soga family: theories of ideal government, the 12 court rank and the "Seventeen Article Constitution," relations with China, spread of Buddhism
The governmental reforms of ShOtoku Taishi of the Soga family: theories of ideal government, the 12 court rank and the "Seventeen Article Constitution," relations with China, spread of Buddhism
Government-directed religious and cultural developments in the Nara period (710-784): flowering of Buddhism; Chinese and Indian influences on literature, music, and the visual arts
Government-directed religious and cultural developments in the Nara period (710-784): flowering of Buddhism; Chinese and Indian influences on literature, music, and the visual arts
Failure of Taika land reforms, power struggles among the nobility, growth of Fujiwara control over government, rise of Japanese literature and rejection of Chinese culture
Failure of Taika land reforms, power struggles among the nobility, growth of Fujiwara control over government, rise of Japanese literature and rejection of Chinese culture
Government by "cloistered" emperors: decline of Fujiwara power and rise of the samurai class, the Högen (1156) and Heiji (1159) uprisings, introduction of feudalism
Government by "cloistered" emperors: decline of Fujiwara power and rise of the samurai class, the Högen (1156) and Heiji (1159) uprisings, introduction of feudalism
The second feudal era: the Muromachi, or Ashikaga, period (1338-1573)
The second feudal era: the Muromachi, or Ashikaga, period (1338-1573)
The Kemmu Restoration (1333) and return to direct Imperial rule: the emperor Go-Daigo, the Kemmu legal code, Ashikaga Takauji and the dual dynasties (1336-92)
The Kemmu Restoration (1333) and return to direct Imperial rule: the emperor Go-Daigo, the Kemmu legal code, Ashikaga Takauji and the dual dynasties (1336-92)
Yoshimitsu's establishment of the Muromachi bakufu (1378) and unification of the dual dynasties (1392): taxation and strong military governors, feudal warfare after 1428
Yoshimitsu's establishment of the Muromachi bakufu (1378) and unification of the dual dynasties (1392): taxation and strong military governors, feudal warfare after 1428
The Tokugawa period (1603-1867): military-bureaucratic rule
The Tokugawa period (1603-1867): military-bureaucratic rule
Establishment (1603) and consolidation of the Tokugawa (Edo) shogunate by Tokugawa Ieyasu: Japanese policy of national seclusion (1630s) from Christian missionaries and most European traders
Establishment (1603) and consolidation of the Tokugawa (Edo) shogunate by Tokugawa Ieyasu: Japanese policy of national seclusion (1630s) from Christian missionaries and most European traders
The Three Kingdoms of Korea (Kogury6, Paekche, and Si11a) and their interactions (c. 57 BC-AD 668), introduction of Buddhism, literature and the visual arts
The Three Kingdoms of Korea (Kogury6, Paekche, and Si11a) and their interactions (c. 57 BC-AD 668), introduction of Buddhism, literature and the visual arts
The unification of Korea under Silla control (668-935): adoption of Chinese governmental organization and land tenure system, emergence of provincial magnates, cultural developments
The unification of Korea under Silla control (668-935): adoption of Chinese governmental organization and land tenure system, emergence of provincial magnates, cultural developments
The Koryo dynasty (935-1392): social and cultural developments, military rule, land reform and social change after the Mongol invasions (1231-c. 1261)
The Koryo dynasty (935-1392): social and cultural developments, military rule, land reform and social change after the Mongol invasions (1231-c. 1261)
The establishment of a Confucian state: royal bureaucratic government, decline of Buddhism and emergence of Confucian culture, introduction of printing
The establishment of a Confucian state: royal bureaucratic government, decline of Buddhism and emergence of Confucian culture, introduction of printing
Invasions by Japan (1592-98) and the Manchu (c. 1619-1636): Korea as a Ch'ing (Manchu) vassal, Silhak scholarship and cultural development, introduction of Roman Catholicism
Invasions by Japan (1592-98) and the Manchu (c. 1619-1636): Korea as a Ch'ing (Manchu) vassal, Silhak scholarship and cultural development, introduction of Roman Catholicism
The character and achievements of traditional Indian civilizations and their influence on Ceylonese and Southeast Asian civilizations, the geography and ethnography of the Indian subcontinent and Ceylon, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
The character and achievements of traditional Indian civilizations and their influence on Ceylonese and Southeast Asian civilizations, the geography and ethnography of the Indian subcontinent and Ceylon, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
India from the prehistoric period to AD 300: the emergence of civilization in the Indus River Valley, the growth of kingdoms and the great empires
India from the prehistoric period to AD 300: the emergence of civilization in the Indus River Valley, the growth of kingdoms and the great empires
The development of the Indo-Aryan states (c. 1500-600 Bc): urbanization at KaSi (Varanasi) and elsewhere in the Ganges Valley, other cultures in the Indian subcontinent
The development of the Indo-Aryan states (c. 1500-600 Bc): urbanization at KaSi (Varanasi) and elsewhere in the Ganges Valley, other cultures in the Indian subcontinent
Cultural and religious development; e.g., patronage of religious art and literature, growth of sects in Hinduism and Jainism, assimilation of foreigners into caste society
Cultural and religious development; e.g., patronage of religious art and literature, growth of sects in Hinduism and Jainism, assimilation of foreigners into caste society
North India, the Deccan, and South India (AD 300-750)
North India, the Deccan, and South India (AD 300-750)
The Guptas of North India (AD 320-540): expansion and administration of territory, invasions by the Winas (c. mid-5th century), successor states to the Guptas
The Guptas of North India (AD 320-540): expansion and administration of territory, invasions by the Winas (c. mid-5th century), successor states to the Guptas
North India (750-1200), the Deccan, and South India (750-c. 1330): new dynasties and centres of power
North India (750-1200), the Deccan, and South India (750-c. 1330): new dynasties and centres of power
Social, economic, and cultural developments; e.g., feudalism and economic decentralization, partial social mobility, growth of Tantrism, literature and the visual arts
Social, economic, and cultural developments; e.g., feudalism and economic decentralization, partial social mobility, growth of Tantrism, literature and the visual arts
Ceylon from the prehistoric period to the end of the Classical Age (AD 1200)
Ceylon from the prehistoric period to the end of the Classical Age (AD 1200)
Ceylon in the Classical Age (c. 200 BC-AD 1200): the Polonnaruva dynasties, growth of Sinhalese political institutions, social and agricultural developments
Ceylon in the Classical Age (c. 200 BC-AD 1200): the Polonnaruva dynasties, growth of Sinhalese political institutions, social and agricultural developments
The Indian Subcontinent from c. 1200 to 1761, and Ceylon from c. 1200 to 1505
The Indian Subcontinent from c. 1200 to 1761, and Ceylon from c. 1200 to 1505
The Deccan (c. 1320-1627) and South India (1336-1646)
The Deccan (c. 1320-1627) and South India (1336-1646)
The Deccan (c. 1320-1627): the Bahmani dynasty and the five Deccan sultanates
The Deccan (c. 1320-1627): the Bahmani dynasty and the five Deccan sultanates
The rise (c. 1500) of the five sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda; Muslim-Hindu relations: Mughal conquests in the Deccan in the 16th century
The rise (c. 1500) of the five sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda; Muslim-Hindu relations: Mughal conquests in the Deccan in the 16th century
The beginning of the political and administrative unification of the subcontinent under the Mughal Empire (1526-1761)
The beginning of the political and administrative unification of the subcontinent under the Mughal Empire (1526-1761)
The emergence of the Maratha empire in Maharashtra: rise to power and decline after 1761
The emergence of the Maratha empire in Maharashtra: rise to power and decline after 1761
The Marathas as the major power in India in the early 18th century: the contribution of the peshwas (chief ministers) to Maratha success, struggle with the Portuguese, establishment of the Maratha confederacy
The Marathas as the major power in India in the early 18th century: the contribution of the peshwas (chief ministers) to Maratha success, struggle with the Portuguese, establishment of the Maratha confederacy
The Peoples and Civilizations of Southeast Asia to c. 1600
The Peoples and Civilizations of Southeast Asia to c. 1600
The character and achievements of traditional Southeast Asian civilizations, South and East Asian influences, the geography and ethnography of Southeast Asia, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
The character and achievements of traditional Southeast Asian civilizations, South and East Asian influences, the geography and ethnography of Southeast Asia, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
Myanmar (Burma) from the Anyathian culture (c. 5000 BC-AD 1600)
Myanmar (Burma) from the Anyathian culture (c. 5000 BC-AD 1600)
Origins of civilization in Myanmar: the Anyathian Stone Age culture, the Mons of southern Myanmar (c. 3rd century ac-1 1 th century AD), Indian trade and cultural influences
Origins of civilization in Myanmar: the Anyathian Stone Age culture, the Mons of southern Myanmar (c. 3rd century ac-1 1 th century AD), Indian trade and cultural influences
Establishment of the Tai state of Ayutthaya (1350): organization of administrative, social, and legal systems; wars with Lan Na during the reign of King Trailok (1448-88)
Establishment of the Tai state of Ayutthaya (1350): organization of administrative, social, and legal systems; wars with Lan Na during the reign of King Trailok (1448-88)
Laos to c. 1600: the Lao as a branch of the Tai people, establishment of the Lan Xang kingdom by Fa Ngum (1353-73), later rulers to 1571, successful Burmese invasion (1574)
Laos to c. 1600: the Lao as a branch of the Tai people, establishment of the Lan Xang kingdom by Fa Ngum (1353-73), later rulers to 1571, successful Burmese invasion (1574)
Establishment of the Khmer state of Angkor (c. 800), religion and the concept of kingship, social and administrative structures, the reign of Suryavarman II (1113-c. 1150), period of instability
Establishment of the Khmer state of Angkor (c. 800), religion and the concept of kingship, social and administrative structures, the reign of Suryavarman II (1113-c. 1150), period of instability
Chinese political and cultural domination of Nam Viet from 111 BC to AD 939; independence under Ly, Tran, and Le dynasties; political unification of Nam Viet and Champa (1471); government and society in precolonial Vietnam
Chinese political and cultural domination of Nam Viet from 111 BC to AD 939; independence under Ly, Tran, and Le dynasties; political unification of Nam Viet and Champa (1471); government and society in precolonial Vietnam
The Malay kingdom of Srivijaya in southeast Java: the influence of Buddhism, the importance of the maritime trade with China from the 7th to the 12th century
The Malay kingdom of Srivijaya in southeast Java: the influence of Buddhism, the importance of the maritime trade with China from the 7th to the 12th century
Eastern Java and the rest of the archipelago from 1019 to 1292: political and cultural developments, the Singhasari empire of Kertanagara and the royal cult
Eastern Java and the rest of the archipelago from 1019 to 1292: political and cultural developments, the Singhasari empire of Kertanagara and the royal cult
The spread of Islam in Indonesia: the rise of Muslim states in Sumatra and Java (c. late 13th century), conflicts between Islam and older Indonesian cultures
The spread of Islam in Indonesia: the rise of Muslim states in Sumatra and Java (c. late 13th century), conflicts between Islam and older Indonesian cultures
Peoples and Civilizations of Sub-Saharan Africa to 1885
Peoples and Civilizations of Sub-Saharan Africa to 1885
The geography and ethnography of West Africa, definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in West Africa
The geography and ethnography of West Africa, definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in West Africa
West Africa until the advent of the Europeans (c. AD 1500)
West Africa until the advent of the Europeans (c. AD 1500)
Emergence of the Keita dynasty of the Mali empire (c. 1235): Timbuktu as the cultural and commercial centre of Mali, fall of the Mali empire (c. late 15th century) and rise of the Songhai empire of Gao
Emergence of the Keita dynasty of the Mali empire (c. 1235): Timbuktu as the cultural and commercial centre of Mali, fall of the Mali empire (c. late 15th century) and rise of the Songhai empire of Gao
The precolonial period of European activity (c. 1400–c. 1885): exploration, development of the slave trade, and eventual collapse of indigenous states
The precolonial period of European activity (c. 1400–c. 1885): exploration, development of the slave trade, and eventual collapse of indigenous states
The rise and expansion of the Atlantic slave trade (c. 1600–c. 1860): the pattern and development of European slave trade routes, the African slave merchant class
The rise and expansion of the Atlantic slave trade (c. 1600–c. 1860): the pattern and development of European slave trade routes, the African slave merchant class
The Islamic revolutions in the western Sudan: spiritual and military leadership of Sidi Mukhtar (d. 1811) and Usman dan Fodio (d. 1817), the Fulani and Hausa jihdds (holy wars) and conquests
The Islamic revolutions in the western Sudan: spiritual and military leadership of Sidi Mukhtar (d. 1811) and Usman dan Fodio (d. 1817), the Fulani and Hausa jihdds (holy wars) and conquests
The Nilotic Sudan and Ethiopia from c. AD 550 to 1885
The Nilotic Sudan and Ethiopia from c. AD 550 to 1885
The spread of Muslim domination from c. 639: Mamlak attacks in the 13th and 14th centuries, invasion of nomadic Arabs in the 15th century and intermarriage with Nubians, kingdom of `Alwah as the last Christian barrier until its conquest (c. 1500)
The spread of Muslim domination from c. 639: Mamlak attacks in the 13th and 14th centuries, invasion of nomadic Arabs in the 15th century and intermarriage with Nubians, kingdom of `Alwah as the last Christian barrier until its conquest (c. 1500)
The decline of the Christian Aksum empire (c. 600-c. 976): cordial relations with Islamic states to the 8th century, conflicts with neighbouring peoples in the 9th century
The decline of the Christian Aksum empire (c. 600-c. 976): cordial relations with Islamic states to the 8th century, conflicts with neighbouring peoples in the 9th century
Contacts with the Portuguese (1520-c. 1632), Muslim invasion under Ahmad Grail (1531-43) and establishment of Turkish garrisons in the 16th century, brief conciliation with the Roman Catholic Church (early 17th century)
Contacts with the Portuguese (1520-c. 1632), Muslim invasion under Ahmad Grail (1531-43) and establishment of Turkish garrisons in the 16th century, brief conciliation with the Roman Catholic Church (early 17th century)
The geography and ethnography of East Africa and Madagascar: definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in East Africa
The geography and ethnography of East Africa and Madagascar: definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in East Africa
The geography and ethnography of Central Africa, definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in Central Africa
The geography and ethnography of Central Africa, definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in Central Africa
Development of Portuguese hegemony over Central Africa from the 1470s: trade and missionary activity, military support of the Kongo kingdom, control of the slave trade, influence on Central African unity
Development of Portuguese hegemony over Central Africa from the 1470s: trade and missionary activity, military support of the Kongo kingdom, control of the slave trade, influence on Central African unity
The geography and ethnography of southern Africa: definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in southern Africa
The geography and ethnography of southern Africa: definition of the region, the archaeological and documentary historical sources and historiographic problems, the character and achievements of civilizations in southern Africa
Origins of mankind and development of culture in the Stone Age and Iron Age, the migrations of Bantu-speaking peoples in southern Africa from c. AD 200-400
Origins of mankind and development of culture in the Stone Age and Iron Age, the migrations of Bantu-speaking peoples in southern Africa from c. AD 200-400
The southeast coast trade in the Late Iron Age and interior trade routes to Mapungubwe (northeastern South Africa), Great Zimbabwe (southeastern Zimbabwe), and Ingombe Ilede (Zambia)
The southeast coast trade in the Late Iron Age and interior trade routes to Mapungubwe (northeastern South Africa), Great Zimbabwe (southeastern Zimbabwe), and Ingombe Ilede (Zambia)
The slave and ivory trade north of the Zambezi in the 19th century: decline of the slave trade in some areas and increased commerce in ivory, Yao migration into present-day Malawi, influence of missionaries
The slave and ivory trade north of the Zambezi in the 19th century: decline of the slave trade in some areas and increased commerce in ivory, Yao migration into present-day Malawi, influence of missionaries
The Cape eastern frontier: Boer and Xhosa resistance to the British, the Boer Great Trek (1835-54) into the interior, continued friction with the British
The Cape eastern frontier: Boer and Xhosa resistance to the British, the Boer Great Trek (1835-54) into the interior, continued friction with the British
Portuguese loss of control in Angola and Mozambique in the mid-19th century, Portuguese reemergence of control in the early 20th century, German annexation of South West Africa (1884)
Portuguese loss of control in Angola and Mozambique in the mid-19th century, Portuguese reemergence of control in the early 20th century, German annexation of South West Africa (1884)
Peoples and Civilizations of Pre-Columbian America
Peoples and Civilizations of Pre-Columbian America
The character and achievements of Andean civilization, the geography and ethnography of the Andean region. archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
The character and achievements of Andean civilization, the geography and ethnography of the Andean region. archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
Initial W. I800-c, 1000 uc) and Early Horizon. or Chavin and Paracas (c. 1000-c. 200 BC), cultures in Peru: development of textiles, pottery. and ceremonial architecture
Initial W. I800-c, 1000 uc) and Early Horizon. or Chavin and Paracas (c. 1000-c. 200 BC), cultures in Peru: development of textiles, pottery. and ceremonial architecture
Late Intermediate Period (c. AD 1000—C. 1400): pottery and the introduction of bronze, the Chimu Empire (c. 1300-c. 1460) located at Chan Chan. spread of urban settlements
Late Intermediate Period (c. AD 1000—C. 1400): pottery and the introduction of bronze, the Chimu Empire (c. 1300-c. 1460) located at Chan Chan. spread of urban settlements
The reigns of Capac Yupanqui. Inca Roca. Yahuar Huacac. and Viracocha Inca: Inca expansion into the Uruhamba Valley and Titicaca Basin, the Chancas invasion (1438)
The reigns of Capac Yupanqui. Inca Roca. Yahuar Huacac. and Viracocha Inca: Inca expansion into the Uruhamba Valley and Titicaca Basin, the Chancas invasion (1438)
Inca victory over the Chancas ( 1438). Incan civil war between Cuzco and Calca factions, Cuzco victory and reign of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438-c. 1471), renewed battles with Chancas (c. 1445). further conquest of Titicaca Basin region, victory over Chimu Empire
Inca victory over the Chancas ( 1438). Incan civil war between Cuzco and Calca factions, Cuzco victory and reign of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438-c. 1471), renewed battles with Chancas (c. 1445). further conquest of Titicaca Basin region, victory over Chimu Empire
Inca conquests during the reign of Topa Inca Yupanqui (c. 1471-c. 1493): annexation of highland Bolivia, northern Chile. northwestern Argentina, and southern Peru
Inca conquests during the reign of Topa Inca Yupanqui (c. 1471-c. 1493): annexation of highland Bolivia, northern Chile. northwestern Argentina, and southern Peru
The Spanish conquest of the Incas (1532-40): Pizarro's execution of Atahuallpa and support of Topa Huallpa (15331. later support of Manco Inca (1533-35); Manco's rebellion and defeat (1536), Spanish consolidation of power
The Spanish conquest of the Incas (1532-40): Pizarro's execution of Atahuallpa and support of Topa Huallpa (15331. later support of Manco Inca (1533-35); Manco's rebellion and defeat (1536), Spanish consolidation of power
The settlement of people loyal to the Incas in newly conquered territories, the spy system, religious practices, military policy and organization. technology, agriculture, transportation system, calendar, oral narratives
The settlement of people loyal to the Incas in newly conquered territories, the spy system, religious practices, military policy and organization. technology, agriculture, transportation system, calendar, oral narratives
The character and achievements of Meso-American civilization, the geography and ethnography of Meso-America, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
The character and achievements of Meso-American civilization, the geography and ethnography of Meso-America, archaeological and documentary historical sources, historiographic problems
The development of Meso-American civilization in the Pre-Classic periods
The development of Meso-American civilization in the Pre-Classic periods
Early Formative Period (c. 1500-c. 900 Bc): the OcOs and Caudros settlements, the Olmec civilization at San Lorenzo (c. 1150-c. 900 Bc) and development of its stone monuments
Early Formative Period (c. 1500-c. 900 Bc): the OcOs and Caudros settlements, the Olmec civilization at San Lorenzo (c. 1150-c. 900 Bc) and development of its stone monuments
Middle Formative Period (c. 900-c. 300 Bc): the Olmecs at La Venta (c. 800-c. 400 Bc); ceremonial architecture, pottery, and writing system; colonization and trade; pre-Maya villages in Guatemala
Middle Formative Period (c. 900-c. 300 Bc): the Olmecs at La Venta (c. 800-c. 400 Bc); ceremonial architecture, pottery, and writing system; colonization and trade; pre-Maya villages in Guatemala
Late Formative Period (c. 300 Bc-c. AD 100): regionalism and cultural integration, the Cuicuilco-Tilcoman cultures in the Valley of Mexico, the Zapotecs of Oaxaca, the Izapan civilization, Mayas of the Chicanel in northern Pe-ten
Late Formative Period (c. 300 Bc-c. AD 100): regionalism and cultural integration, the Cuicuilco-Tilcoman cultures in the Valley of Mexico, the Zapotecs of Oaxaca, the Izapan civilization, Mayas of the Chicanel in northern Pe-ten
Maya and non-Maya Meso-America in the Classic Period (c. AD 100-c. 900)
Maya and non-Maya Meso-America in the Classic Period (c. AD 100-c. 900)
Late Classic non-Maya Meso-America (c. AD 600-c. 900): decline of Teotihuacan political and cultural influence, rise of Xochicalco culture, the Mixtecs of northern Oaxaca
Late Classic non-Maya Meso-America (c. AD 600-c. 900): decline of Teotihuacan political and cultural influence, rise of Xochicalco culture, the Mixtecs of northern Oaxaca
Post-Classic Period in the Valley of Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula (c. 900-c. 1519)
Post-Classic Period in the Valley of Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula (c. 900-c. 1519)
The rise and decline of the Toltec state in southern Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula (c. 900c. 1200): secular and religious institutions, art and architecture, the legend of Quetzalcoatl, Toltec-Maya culture of Tollan (Tula) and Chichen-Itza
The rise and decline of the Toltec state in southern Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula (c. 900c. 1200): secular and religious institutions, art and architecture, the legend of Quetzalcoatl, Toltec-Maya culture of Tollan (Tula) and Chichen-Itza
The development of the Aztec state and extension of Aztec rule over the Valley of Mexico (c. 1325-1519): military campaigns of Itzcoatl, Montezuma I, and Ahuitzotl; administrative techniques under Montezuma II (1502-20)
The development of the Aztec state and extension of Aztec rule over the Valley of Mexico (c. 1325-1519): military campaigns of Itzcoatl, Montezuma I, and Ahuitzotl; administrative techniques under Montezuma II (1502-20)
Aztec culture and society up to the time of the Spanish conquest; e.g., agriculture and technology, political organization, governmental structure, militarism, economy, religion, art and architecture
Aztec culture and society up to the time of the Spanish conquest; e.g., agriculture and technology, political organization, governmental structure, militarism, economy, religion, art and architecture
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec state and the Yucatan Peninsula (1519-c. 1540): destruction of Aztec government and culture, imposition of Spanish colonial policies and religion
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec state and the Yucatan Peninsula (1519-c. 1540): destruction of Aztec government and culture, imposition of Spanish colonial policies and religion
The effects of religious and cultural change: the emergence of the nation-state system, the predominance and decline of Habsburg power centred in Spain (c. 1500-1648)
The effects of religious and cultural change: the emergence of the nation-state system, the predominance and decline of Habsburg power centred in Spain (c. 1500-1648)
The French invasion (1494) and conquests of Naples (1495) and Milan (1499), the influence of Savonarola, the anti-French League of Venice and the Spanish defeat of France (1525)
The French invasion (1494) and conquests of Naples (1495) and Milan (1499), the influence of Savonarola, the anti-French League of Venice and the Spanish defeat of France (1525)
Establishment of the Habsburg dynasty (1516) by Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V), Spanish hegemony in Europe and the Americas, domestic and foreign policies of Philip II (1556-98), the Armada (1588), cultural developments in Spain's Golden Age
Establishment of the Habsburg dynasty (1516) by Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V), Spanish hegemony in Europe and the Americas, domestic and foreign policies of Philip II (1556-98), the Armada (1588), cultural developments in Spain's Golden Age
Political and economic decline during the reigns of Philip III (1598-1621) and Philip IV (1621-65): expulsion of the Moriscos (1609), Olivares' administration, loss of Portugal (1640)
Political and economic decline during the reigns of Philip III (1598-1621) and Philip IV (1621-65): expulsion of the Moriscos (1609), Olivares' administration, loss of Portugal (1640)
Henry VIII (1509-47): foreign and domestic policies; the divorce question, the English Reformation, and the establishment of the Church of England; Edward VI (1547-53) and Mary I (1553-58)
Henry VIII (1509-47): foreign and domestic policies; the divorce question, the English Reformation, and the establishment of the Church of England; Edward VI (1547-53) and Mary I (1553-58)
James I (1603-25) of England (James VI of Scotland) and establishment of the Stuart dynasty: developments in religious doctrine, foreign relations, economic policy, and the arts; conflicts between crown and Parliament
James I (1603-25) of England (James VI of Scotland) and establishment of the Stuart dynasty: developments in religious doctrine, foreign relations, economic policy, and the arts; conflicts between crown and Parliament
Charles I (1625-49) and the English Civil War (1642-51): economic and political disputes between crown and Parliament; royal personal rule (1629-40); persecution of Puritans; the Long Parliament, Oliver Cromwell, and the Civil War; execution of Charles I (1649)
Charles I (1625-49) and the English Civil War (1642-51): economic and political disputes between crown and Parliament; royal personal rule (1629-40); persecution of Puritans; the Long Parliament, Oliver Cromwell, and the Civil War; execution of Charles I (1649)
Scotland in the 16th and 17th centuries: reigns of James IV and James V; Mary, Queen of Scots (1542-67), and the Scottish Reformation; John Knox and Calvinism; James VI (1567-1625) of Scotland (James I of England, 1603-25) and personal union of the two crowns
Scotland in the 16th and 17th centuries: reigns of James IV and James V; Mary, Queen of Scots (1542-67), and the Scottish Reformation; John Knox and Calvinism; James VI (1567-1625) of Scotland (James I of England, 1603-25) and personal union of the two crowns
Ireland in the 16th and 17th centuries: subjugation of Ireland by Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, the Irish revolt of 1641. Cromwell's invasion and anti-Catholic policies during the Commonwealth
Ireland in the 16th and 17th centuries: subjugation of Ireland by Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, the Irish revolt of 1641. Cromwell's invasion and anti-Catholic policies during the Commonwealth
Development of a standing army and a professional bureaucracy in the reigns of Charles VIII (1483-98), Louis XII (1498-1515), Francis I (1515-47), and Henry II (1547-59)
Development of a standing army and a professional bureaucracy in the reigns of Charles VIII (1483-98), Louis XII (1498-1515), Francis I (1515-47), and Henry II (1547-59)
The Protestant Reformation and the French Wars of Religion (1562-98): the reigns of Catherine de Mêdicis (1560-74) and Henry III (1574-89), religious compromise and restoration of strong monarchy under Henry IV of Bourbon (1589-1610)
The Protestant Reformation and the French Wars of Religion (1562-98): the reigns of Catherine de Mêdicis (1560-74) and Henry III (1574-89), religious compromise and restoration of strong monarchy under Henry IV of Bourbon (1589-1610)
Maximilian I (1493-1519), Martin Luther, and the origins of Lutheranism; Charles V and the Diet and Edict of Worms (1521); the Peasants' Revolt (1524-25); diets of Speyer (1526 and 1529) and Augsburg (1530); the Schmalkaldic League and ensuing wars; abdication of Charles V (1555) and Peace of Augsburg
Maximilian I (1493-1519), Martin Luther, and the origins of Lutheranism; Charles V and the Diet and Edict of Worms (1521); the Peasants' Revolt (1524-25); diets of Speyer (1526 and 1529) and Augsburg (1530); the Schmalkaldic League and ensuing wars; abdication of Charles V (1555) and Peace of Augsburg
Ferdinand I (1556-64) and Maximilian II (1564-76), internal disunity under their successors, the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), political and religious settlements of the Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Ferdinand I (1556-64) and Maximilian II (1564-76), internal disunity under their successors, the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), political and religious settlements of the Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Swiss victory over Charles the Bold in the Burgundian War (1474-77), military prestige of the confederation, victory over Maximilian I (1499), the Italian campaigns (1499-1516)
Swiss victory over Charles the Bold in the Burgundian War (1474-77), military prestige of the confederation, victory over Maximilian I (1499), the Italian campaigns (1499-1516)
The Swiss Reformation: Zwingli and Calvin, the Counter-Reformation and emergence of Catholic and Protestant cantons, neutrality in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), European recognition by the Peace of Westphalia (1648)
The Swiss Reformation: Zwingli and Calvin, the Counter-Reformation and emergence of Catholic and Protestant cantons, neutrality in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), European recognition by the Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Habsburg unification of the Low Countries (1494); further consolidation under the future emperor Charles V (1506-55); economic, cultural, and religious developments; revolt of the provinces (1567-79)
Habsburg unification of the Low Countries (1494); further consolidation under the future emperor Charles V (1506-55); economic, cultural, and religious developments; revolt of the provinces (1567-79)
Establishment of the United Provinces of the Netherlands (the Dutch Republic) in 1579: leadership of the House of Orange, continued war against Spanish Habsburg power
Establishment of the United Provinces of the Netherlands (the Dutch Republic) in 1579: leadership of the House of Orange, continued war against Spanish Habsburg power
Scandinavia from 1523 to 1648: separation of Sweden from Denmark-Norway (1523) and Dano-Swedish conflicts; Christian III of Denmark (1534-59), Gustav I Vasa (1523-60), and Gustavus II Adolphus (1611-32) of Sweden; participation in Thirty Years' War (1618-48)
Scandinavia from 1523 to 1648: separation of Sweden from Denmark-Norway (1523) and Dano-Swedish conflicts; Christian III of Denmark (1534-59), Gustav I Vasa (1523-60), and Gustavus II Adolphus (1611-32) of Sweden; participation in Thirty Years' War (1618-48)
European overseas expansion and commercial development from c. 1400 to 1763
European overseas expansion and commercial development from c. 1400 to 1763
The decline of the feudal system and growth of commercial activity
The decline of the feudal system and growth of commercial activity
The changing relationship between tenant and landlord, agricultural developments, evolving role of the guilds, decline of Hanseatic League. demographic movements
The changing relationship between tenant and landlord, agricultural developments, evolving role of the guilds, decline of Hanseatic League. demographic movements
Increase in volume of world trade: the growth of the luxury trade (silks, spices, precious metals), the agricultural trade (tobacco, sugar. and coffee), the raw materials trade
Increase in volume of world trade: the growth of the luxury trade (silks, spices, precious metals), the agricultural trade (tobacco, sugar. and coffee), the raw materials trade
Political effects: the relationship between Spain's status as an international power and its colonial possessions in the 16th century. colonial rivalries among European powers in the 17th and 18th centuries
Political effects: the relationship between Spain's status as an international power and its colonial possessions in the 16th century. colonial rivalries among European powers in the 17th and 18th centuries
France and Great Britain as the dominant powers in Europe, the emergence of Prussia and Austria as European powers
France and Great Britain as the dominant powers in Europe, the emergence of Prussia and Austria as European powers
The Age of Louis XIV (1661-1715): French successes in the War of Devolution (1667-68) and the Dutch War (1672-79). defeat in the War of the League of Augsburg (1689-97) and the War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701-14)
The Age of Louis XIV (1661-1715): French successes in the War of Devolution (1667-68) and the Dutch War (1672-79). defeat in the War of the League of Augsburg (1689-97) and the War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701-14)
Oliver Cromwell, the Commonwealth, and the Protectorate (1649-60); the Stuart Restoration (1660) under Charles II ( 1 660-8 5 ) and James II (1685-88); the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and end of crown rule without Parliament
Oliver Cromwell, the Commonwealth, and the Protectorate (1649-60); the Stuart Restoration (1660) under Charles II ( 1 660-8 5 ) and James II (1685-88); the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and end of crown rule without Parliament
Limited monarchy under William III (1689-1702) and Mary II ( 1689-94) and Anne (1702-14); growth of Whig and Tory political parties (1689-1714); the Hanoverian succession and emergence of the cabinet system under George I and George II; Whig supremacy and political stability to 1760; ministries of Walpole, Pelham, and Pitt
Limited monarchy under William III (1689-1702) and Mary II ( 1689-94) and Anne (1702-14); growth of Whig and Tory political parties (1689-1714); the Hanoverian succession and emergence of the cabinet system under George I and George II; Whig supremacy and political stability to 1760; ministries of Walpole, Pelham, and Pitt
Early years of George Ill's reign (1760-1820) to c. 1790: eclipse of Whig power and political instability (1760-70), failure of colonial policies and U.S. War of Independence, beginning of parliamentary and reform movements
Early years of George Ill's reign (1760-1820) to c. 1790: eclipse of Whig power and political instability (1760-70), failure of colonial policies and U.S. War of Independence, beginning of parliamentary and reform movements
Economic, cultural, and social developments: agricultural innovations, population growth, origins of the Industrial Revolution and factory system, influence of Methodism
Economic, cultural, and social developments: agricultural innovations, population growth, origins of the Industrial Revolution and factory system, influence of Methodism
Formal union of England and Scotland (1707), Edinburgh's status as an intellectual centre, Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and growth of Irish patriotism among the Anglo-Irish, Wales in the 18th century
Formal union of England and Scotland (1707), Edinburgh's status as an intellectual centre, Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and growth of Irish patriotism among the Anglo-Irish, Wales in the 18th century
Louis's religious and political policies: revocation (1685) of the Edict of Nantes and the Huguenot emigration, political influence of Jansenism, royal absolutism
Louis's religious and political policies: revocation (1685) of the Edict of Nantes and the Huguenot emigration, political influence of Jansenism, royal absolutism
The ancien regime (1715-89): the close relationship between society and the state, the new urban class, the decline of the monarchy under Louis XV (1715-74) and Louis XVI (1774-92), power of the parlements, agricultural and industrial growth, domestic and colonial trade
The ancien regime (1715-89): the close relationship between society and the state, the new urban class, the decline of the monarchy under Louis XV (1715-74) and Louis XVI (1774-92), power of the parlements, agricultural and industrial growth, domestic and colonial trade
The reform movement: the influences of nationalism and individualism; attacks on political, social, and economic policies of the ancien regime; conflict between the nobility and bourgeoisie; the financial crisis and attempts at reform by Necker and Turgot; the States General and the beginning of the Revolution (1789)
The reform movement: the influences of nationalism and individualism; attacks on political, social, and economic policies of the ancien regime; conflict between the nobility and bourgeoisie; the financial crisis and attempts at reform by Necker and Turgot; the States General and the beginning of the Revolution (1789)
Austrian consolidation and expansion under Leopold I (1658-1705), Joseph I (170511), and Charles VI (1711-40): conquest of Hungary and penetration of the Balkans in the Austro-Turkish wars (1683-99 and 1716-18), War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) and acquisition of the Spanish Netherlands (1713)
Austrian consolidation and expansion under Leopold I (1658-1705), Joseph I (170511), and Charles VI (1711-40): conquest of Hungary and penetration of the Balkans in the Austro-Turkish wars (1683-99 and 1716-18), War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) and acquisition of the Spanish Netherlands (1713)
The Pragmatic Sanction and the accession of Maria Theresa (1740); War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) and loss of Silesia to Prussia (1741); military, administrative, and educational reforms of Maria Theresa; acquisition of Polish Galicia (1772); failure of Joseph Il's (1765-90) foreign policies and his enlightened domestic reforms (1780-90)
The Pragmatic Sanction and the accession of Maria Theresa (1740); War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) and loss of Silesia to Prussia (1741); military, administrative, and educational reforms of Maria Theresa; acquisition of Polish Galicia (1772); failure of Joseph Il's (1765-90) foreign policies and his enlightened domestic reforms (1780-90)
Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640-88): strengthening of Hohenzollern power in Brandenburg and Prussia, end of Polish suzerainty over Prussia, War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Austro-Prussian rivalry in the 18th century, Frederick 1 (170113) and Frederick William I (1713-40) of Prussia
Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640-88): strengthening of Hohenzollern power in Brandenburg and Prussia, end of Polish suzerainty over Prussia, War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Austro-Prussian rivalry in the 18th century, Frederick 1 (170113) and Frederick William I (1713-40) of Prussia
Frederick II the Great (1740-86): War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), Seven Years' War (1756-63), partitions of Poland (1772-95), development of Idealism (Kant), enlightened reform and benevolent despotism
Frederick II the Great (1740-86): War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), Seven Years' War (1756-63), partitions of Poland (1772-95), development of Idealism (Kant), enlightened reform and benevolent despotism
Spain from 1665 to c. 1790: continued decline under Charles 11 (1665-1700); War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) and establishment of the Bourbon dynasty; pro-French foreign policy under Philip V, Ferdinand VI, and Charles III; administrative and economic reforms of Charles III
Spain from 1665 to c. 1790: continued decline under Charles 11 (1665-1700); War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) and establishment of the Bourbon dynasty; pro-French foreign policy under Philip V, Ferdinand VI, and Charles III; administrative and economic reforms of Charles III
Portugal from 1640 to c. 1777: increasing economic and diplomatic ties to England under John IV (1640-56), Afonso VI (1656-83), Pedro 11 (1683-1706), and John V (1706-50); economic, religious, and administrative reforms under Pombal and Joseph I (1750-77)
Portugal from 1640 to c. 1777: increasing economic and diplomatic ties to England under John IV (1640-56), Afonso VI (1656-83), Pedro 11 (1683-1706), and John V (1706-50); economic, religious, and administrative reforms under Pombal and Joseph I (1750-77)
The viceroyalty of Naples and the kingdom of Sicily: economic and social unrest, rule of Charles VI in Sicily, transfer of Naples and Sicily to Charles III in 1734, the Bourbon regime
The viceroyalty of Naples and the kingdom of Sicily: economic and social unrest, rule of Charles VI in Sicily, transfer of Naples and Sicily to Charles III in 1734, the Bourbon regime
The United Provinces of the Netherlands from 1648 to 1789; economic and political stagnation; the first (1650-72) and second (1702-47) stadholderless periods; the patriotic movement; social, religious, and cultural development
The United Provinces of the Netherlands from 1648 to 1789; economic and political stagnation; the first (1650-72) and second (1702-47) stadholderless periods; the patriotic movement; social, religious, and cultural development
Swedish wars of conquest against Poland and Denmark-Norway under Charles X Gustav (1654-60) and Charles XI (1672-97), war with Russia under Charles XII (1697-1718) and displacement of Sweden by Russia as the chief Baltic power after the Great Northern War (1700-21)
Swedish wars of conquest against Poland and Denmark-Norway under Charles X Gustav (1654-60) and Charles XI (1672-97), war with Russia under Charles XII (1697-1718) and displacement of Sweden by Russia as the chief Baltic power after the Great Northern War (1700-21)
Denmark–Norway losses in the First Northern War with Sweden (1655-60); economic stagnation (1720-66), "Enlightened" reforms under Christian VII (1766-1808), Struensee, and Bernstorff; revival of settlement in Greenland (1714)
Denmark–Norway losses in the First Northern War with Sweden (1655-60); economic stagnation (1720-66), "Enlightened" reforms under Christian VII (1766-1808), Struensee, and Bernstorff; revival of settlement in Greenland (1714)
Growth of parliamentary government in Sweden: Frederick I (1720-51) and Adolf Frederick (1751-71), the "Hats" and "Nightcaps" political parties, absolutism reestablished by Gustav III (1771-92)
Growth of parliamentary government in Sweden: Frederick I (1720-51) and Adolf Frederick (1751-71), the "Hats" and "Nightcaps" political parties, absolutism reestablished by Gustav III (1771-92)
Eastern Europe, Southwest Asia, and North Africa from c. 1480 to c. 1800
Eastern Europe, Southwest Asia, and North Africa from c. 1480 to c. 1800
Poland-Lithuania (1492-1795): gradual weakening of the monarchy, decline and dismemberment of the state
Poland-Lithuania (1492-1795): gradual weakening of the monarchy, decline and dismemberment of the state
Foreign relations: Ottoman invasions, Russian invasion of Lithuania, alliance with Turks (1533) and reestablishment of Polish security, renewed Russian aggression
Foreign relations: Ottoman invasions, Russian invasion of Lithuania, alliance with Turks (1533) and reestablishment of Polish security, renewed Russian aggression
Domestic developments: population movements, constitutional reform, prosperous foreign trade, exploitation of the peasantry and their reduction to serfdom, effects of the Renaissance and the Reformation
Domestic developments: population movements, constitutional reform, prosperous foreign trade, exploitation of the peasantry and their reduction to serfdom, effects of the Renaissance and the Reformation
The Interregnum (1572-75) and reform of the monarchy: Stephen Bathory (157686) and Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632), indecisive wars with Sweden for possession of the Baltic region
The Interregnum (1572-75) and reform of the monarchy: Stephen Bathory (157686) and Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632), indecisive wars with Sweden for possession of the Baltic region
The period of wars and disintegration (1648-97): the Cossack-Russian and Swedish invasions in the reign of John II Casimir (1648-68), loss of Ducal Prussia to Brandenburg (1657), Michael WiSniowiecki (1669-73), John III Sobieski's (1674-96) victories over the Turks
The period of wars and disintegration (1648-97): the Cossack-Russian and Swedish invasions in the reign of John II Casimir (1648-68), loss of Ducal Prussia to Brandenburg (1657), Michael WiSniowiecki (1669-73), John III Sobieski's (1674-96) victories over the Turks
The reigns of Augustus II (1697-1733) and Augustus III (1733-63): participation in the Great Northern War, relations with Prussia, the Seven Years' War (1756-63)
The reigns of Augustus II (1697-1733) and Augustus III (1733-63): participation in the Great Northern War, relations with Prussia, the Seven Years' War (1756-63)
Hungary: the Jagiellon kings (1490-1526) and the partition period (1526-1699)
Hungary: the Jagiellon kings (1490-1526) and the partition period (1526-1699)
Division into Ottoman and Habsburg sectors in the 16th century, the spread of Protestantism, the Fifteen Years' War, the rise of Transylvania, defeat of the Turks (1686) and subjection of all Hungary to the Habsburgs in 1699
Division into Ottoman and Habsburg sectors in the 16th century, the spread of Protestantism, the Fifteen Years' War, the rise of Transylvania, defeat of the Turks (1686) and subjection of all Hungary to the Habsburgs in 1699
Extension of Muscovite control over Russia under Vasily III (1505-33), Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-84), and Boris Godunov (1598-1605); civil revolt in the Time of Troubles (15981613)
Extension of Muscovite control over Russia under Vasily III (1505-33), Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-84), and Boris Godunov (1598-1605); civil revolt in the Time of Troubles (15981613)
The Romanov Muscovy: election of Michael Romanov as tsar (1613) and continued autocracy under his successors, expansion into the Ukraine, 17th-century cultural and religious life
The Romanov Muscovy: election of Michael Romanov as tsar (1613) and continued autocracy under his successors, expansion into the Ukraine, 17th-century cultural and religious life
The Table of Ranks and the new nobility: reform of the clerical hierarchy, urban legislation, building of St. Petersburg, conquest of the Baltic provinces
The Table of Ranks and the new nobility: reform of the clerical hierarchy, urban legislation, building of St. Petersburg, conquest of the Baltic provinces
The Islamic states of eastern Europe, Southwest Asia, and North Africa
The Islamic states of eastern Europe, Southwest Asia, and North Africa
The Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1807, Morocco from 1459 to 1830
The Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1807, Morocco from 1459 to 1830
Consolidation of the empire in the reign of Bayezid II (1481-1512), Selim I's (151220) successes against Iran and seizure of Syria and Egypt, Silleyman I's (1520-66) conflicts with the Habsburgs in Hungary and annexation of Iraq
Consolidation of the empire in the reign of Bayezid II (1481-1512), Selim I's (151220) successes against Iran and seizure of Syria and Egypt, Silleyman I's (1520-66) conflicts with the Habsburgs in Hungary and annexation of Iraq
Morocco: disunity after the fall of the Marinid dynasty, the anti-Portuguese policy of the Sa`di of Marrakesh, increasing isolation under the `Alawi dynasty (1659-1830)
Morocco: disunity after the fall of the Marinid dynasty, the anti-Portuguese policy of the Sadi of Marrakesh, increasing isolation under the Alawi dynasty (1659-1830)
The rise of the Shiite Safavid dynasty: conflict with the Turks, possession of western Afghanistan, disintegration and later restoration of the state by `Abbas I (15871629), relations with European powers, decline and foreign invasions in the later 17th century, the arts under the Safavids
The rise of the Shiite Safavid dynasty: conflict with the Turks, possession of western Afghanistan, disintegration and later restoration of the state by `Abbas I (15871629), relations with European powers, decline and foreign invasions in the later 17th century, the arts under the Safavids
The expulsion (1730-32) of the Afghans, Russians, and Turks by Nadir Shah; invasions of India and Turkistan (1738-39); attempts to unite Shiite and Sunni Muslims; establishment of Zand and Qajar dynasties
The expulsion (1730-32) of the Afghans, Russians, and Turks by Nadir Shah; invasions of India and Turkistan (1738-39); attempts to unite Shiite and Sunni Muslims; establishment of Zand and Qajar dynasties
Afghanistan from c. 1500 to 1812: national awakening and rise of Afghan power in the early 18th century, subjection by Nadir Shah (1732), establishment of the Durrani dynasty (1747), intrusions in India and involvement in British affairs
Afghanistan from c. 1500 to 1812: national awakening and rise of Afghan power in the early 18th century, subjection by Nadir Shah (1732), establishment of the Durrani dynasty (1747), intrusions in India and involvement in British affairs
European political and economic revolution (1789-1850): the French Revolution and its effects, the development and effects of industrialization
European political and economic revolution (1789-1850): the French Revolution and its effects, the development and effects of industrialization
The French Revolution and its reverberating effects on Europe (1789-1815)
The French Revolution and its reverberating effects on Europe (1789-1815)
The revolt of the Third Estate: uprisings in Paris and the provinces, the reforms of the Constituent Assembly, abolition of the monarchy, Marat and the Jacobins, the Legislative Assembly
The revolt of the Third Estate: uprisings in Paris and the provinces, the reforms of the Constituent Assembly, abolition of the monarchy, Marat and the Jacobins, the Legislative Assembly
The Directory (1795-99) and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte: as first consul (17991804) and emperor (1804), the Code Napoleon and reconciliation with the church
The Directory (1795-99) and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte: as first consul (17991804) and emperor (1804), the Code Napoleon and reconciliation with the church
The War of the First Coalition (1792-97): French support for revolution in neighbouring lands and annexation of Nice, Savoy, Austrian Netherlands, the Rhineland, and the Batavian Republic; Napoleon's Italian Campaign; the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)
The War of the First Coalition (1792-97): French support for revolution in neighbouring lands and annexation of Nice, Savoy, Austrian Netherlands, the Rhineland, and the Batavian Republic; Napoleon's Italian Campaign; the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)
The French expedition to Egypt and Syria (1798-1802): Continental campaigns of the Second Coalition (1798-1802), French occupation of Rome and Naples, Marengo and Hohenlinden, Peace of Lunêville (1801) and Treaty of Amiens (1802), Napoleon's reorganization of the German states and the formal end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806)
The French expedition to Egypt and Syria (1798-1802): Continental campaigns of the Second Coalition (1798-1802), French occupation of Rome and Naples, Marengo and Hohenlinden, Peace of Lunêville (1801) and Treaty of Amiens (1802), Napoleon's reorganization of the German states and the formal end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806)
The Third Coalition (1805-07) and the battles of Trafalgar, Austerlitz, Jena, and Friedland: the subjugation of Prussia, Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and the peak of Napoleon's power, the Continental System and its failure
The Third Coalition (1805-07) and the battles of Trafalgar, Austerlitz, Jena, and Friedland: the subjugation of Prussia, Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and the peak of Napoleon's power, the Continental System and its failure
The Franco-Austrian War (1809), the Spanish uprising and the Peninsular War (1808-14), Napoleon's defeat in the Russian campaign (1812) and the campaign of the Fourth Coalition, downfall (1814) and exile of Napoleon
The Franco-Austrian War (1809), the Spanish uprising and the Peninsular War (1808-14), Napoleon's defeat in the Russian campaign (1812) and the campaign of the Fourth Coalition, downfall (1814) and exile of Napoleon
The influence of the French Revolution on the growth of English radicalism: governmental hostility to reform, Pitt's ministries and the war with France, Canning and Castlereagh, British gains in the peace settlements
The influence of the French Revolution on the growth of English radicalism: governmental hostility to reform, Pitt's ministries and the war with France, Canning and Castlereagh, British gains in the peace settlements
Suppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and union of Great Britain and Ireland (1801): Irish social, economic, and cultural life in the 17th and 18th centuries
Suppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and union of Great Britain and Ireland (1801): Irish social, economic, and cultural life in the 17th and 18th centuries
Russia in the reigns of Paul I (1796-1801) and Alexander I (1801-25): Russian participation in the Napoleonic Wars, the initial liberal reforms of Alexander I
Russia in the reigns of Paul I (1796-1801) and Alexander I (1801-25): Russian participation in the Napoleonic Wars, the initial liberal reforms of Alexander I
Austria (1790-1815): the reigns of Leopold II (1790-92) and Francis II (1792-1806; as emperor of Austria, Francis I, 1804-35); participation in the coalitions against Napoleon, shift to compliance with him, and eventual intervention in the wars of liberation
Austria (1790-1815): the reigns of Leopold II (1790-92) and Francis II (1792-1806; as emperor of Austria, Francis I, 1804-35); participation in the coalitions against Napoleon, shift to compliance with him, and eventual intervention in the wars of liberation
Spain in the reign of Charles IV (1788-1808), French occupation (1808) and British aid in the War of Independence (Peninsular War), restoration of the Bourbons
Spain in the reign of Charles IV (1788-1808), French occupation (1808) and British aid in the War of Independence (Peninsular War), restoration of the Bourbons
Sweden: Gustav IV and Charles XIII, the loss of Finland to Russia (1809), installation of Bernadotte as crown prince (1810), his anti-Napoleonic policy and the acquisition of Norway
Sweden: Gustav IV and Charles XIII, the loss of Finland to Russia (1809), installation of Bernadotte as crown prince (1810), his anti-Napoleonic policy and the acquisition of Norway
Italy during the French Revolution: support of revolutionary goals, French invasion and establishment of the republics, the French Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire
Italy during the French Revolution: support of revolutionary goals, French invasion and establishment of the republics, the French Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire
Pan-European developments in the first half of the 19th century: economic, intellectual, cultural, and social movements
Pan-European developments in the first half of the 19th century: economic, intellectual, cultural, and social movements
The social consequences of the Industrial Revolution: division between capitalist and worker, wages and living and working conditions, new abundance of manufactured goods
The social consequences of the Industrial Revolution: division between capitalist and worker, wages and living and working conditions, new abundance of manufactured goods
New facilities for scientific study in France and other Continental countries: effects of technological developments and scientific thought on society, principle of evolution
New facilities for scientific study in France and other Continental countries: effects of technological developments and scientific thought on society, principle of evolution
Congress of Europe: the Quadruple and Holy alliances for maintenance of the Vienna settlement, French intervention in Spain (1823), Austrian intervention in Italy (1821 and 1830), changes in the Congress system with the Revolution of 1830 in France and Belgium
Congress of Europe: the Quadruple and Holy alliances for maintenance of the Vienna settlement, French intervention in Spain (1823), Austrian intervention in Italy (1821 and 1830), changes in the Congress system with the Revolution of 1830 in France and Belgium
Political and social reform measures (1822-48); e.g., penal reforms, Catholic Emancipation (1829), Peel's new police force (1829), First Reform Bill (1832), abolition of slavery in British colonies (1833), new Poor Law (1834), repeal of the Corn Laws (1846), Navigation Acts, the Chartist movement, the growth of trade unionism and the Factory Act (1847), Public Health Act (1848)
Political and social reform measures (1822-48); e.g., penal reforms, Catholic Emancipation (1829), Peel's new police force (1829), First Reform Bill (1832), abolition of slavery in British colonies (1833), new Poor Law (1834), repeal of the Corn Laws (1846), Navigation Acts, the Chartist movement, the growth of trade unionism and the Factory Act (1847), Public Health Act (1848)
The Revolution of 1830, Louis-Philippe and the July monarchy, the preservation of the status quo under Guizot, growing dissatisfaction with the regime in the 1840s
The Revolution of 1830, Louis-Philippe and the July monarchy, the preservation of the status quo under Guizot, growing dissatisfaction with the regime in the 1840s
The Revolution of 1848: Socialist thought and the establishment of the Second Republic, suppression of Socialist experiments, presidency of Louis-Napoleon
The Revolution of 1848: Socialist thought and the establishment of the Second Republic, suppression of Socialist experiments, presidency of Louis-Napoleon
The German Confederation: Austrian domination under Metternich, the student national unity movement and its repression by the Carlsbad Decrees (1819), beginning of industrialization and the Zollverein
The German Confederation: Austrian domination under Metternich, the student national unity movement and its repression by the Carlsbad Decrees (1819), beginning of industrialization and the Zollverein
Development of national consciousness among the peoples of the empire: cultural revival among Magyars, Croats, Serbians, Poles, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Slovenes; German and Italian nationalism
Development of national consciousness among the peoples of the empire: cultural revival among Magyars, Croats, Serbians, Poles, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Slovenes; German and Italian nationalism
Abortive revolutions in Naples and Piedmont (1820); economic slump and revival; rebellions in Modena. Parma. the Romagna. the Marches, and Umbria (1831)
Abortive revolutions in Naples and Piedmont (1820); economic slump and revival; rebellions in Modena. Parma. the Romagna. the Marches, and Umbria (1831)
Switzerland from 1815 to 1860: conservative constitution of 1815. the Sonderbund War (1847), the new federal state established (1848-60). policy of neutrality
Switzerland from 1815 to 1860: conservative constitution of 1815. the Sonderbund War (1847), the new federal state established (1848-60). policy of neutrality
The Low Countries from 1814 to 1848: union of The Netherlands. Luxembourg, and Belgium (1814); Belgian Revolution (1830) and establishment as a separate monarchy under Leopold I (1831-65); constitutional reform (1848) in The Netherlands
The Low Countries from 1814 to 1848: union of The Netherlands. Luxembourg, and Belgium (1814); Belgian Revolution (1830) and establishment as a separate monarchy under Leopold I (1831-65); constitutional reform (1848) in The Netherlands
Spain under Ferdinand VII, revolution and abortive liberal government (1820-23), loss of South American empire (I 820s). Isabella II and the succession dispute, First Carlist War (1833-39) and the "Spanish marriages" controversy
Spain under Ferdinand VII, revolution and abortive liberal government (1820-23), loss of South American empire (I 820s). Isabella II and the succession dispute, First Carlist War (1833-39) and the "Spanish marriages" controversy
Portuguese loss of Brazil (1822), civil war between constitutionalists and absolutists (1832-34), British intervention (1826-34). Maria II (1834-53) and civil strife between Septembrists and Saldanha
Portuguese loss of Brazil (1822), civil war between constitutionalists and absolutists (1832-34), British intervention (1826-34). Maria II (1834-53) and civil strife between Septembrists and Saldanha
Denmark in the reigns of Frederick VI (1808-39) and Christian VIII (1839-48): beginning of economic problems, tendencies toward constitutional government culminating in the constitution of 1849. war over Schleswig-Holstein (1848-51)
Denmark in the reigns of Frederick VI (1808-39) and Christian VIII (1839-48): beginning of economic problems, tendencies toward constitutional government culminating in the constitution of 1849. war over Schleswig-Holstein (1848-51)
Developments in Sweden-Norway: conservative era under Charles XIV John (181844). liberal reforms after 1840 and under Oscar I (1844-59). Norway's struggle to assert independence from Sweden
Developments in Sweden-Norway: conservative era under Charles XIV John (181844). liberal reforms after 1840 and under Oscar I (1844-59). Norway's struggle to assert independence from Sweden
Serbian uprising (1804-13) and the rise of the principality, restoration of Ottoman power in Serbia (1813-15), Serbian autonomy (1830) under Ottoman Empire, Milos Obrenoviê recognized as prince of Serbia (1833-39) and government of Alexander Karageorge (1842-58)
Serbian uprising (1804-13) and the rise of the principality, restoration of Ottoman power in Serbia (1813-15), Serbian autonomy (1830) under Ottoman Empire, Milos Obrenoviê recognized as prince of Serbia (1833-39) and government of Alexander Karageorge (1842-58)
Realism and materialism, nationalism, the reorganization of Europe. imperialist expansion (1850c. 1920)
Realism and materialism, nationalism, the reorganization of Europe. imperialist expansion (1850c. 1920)
European cultural and economic life from 1850 to 1920
European cultural and economic life from 1850 to 1920
Scientific theory and practice: Einsteinian relativity, the social effects of medical advances, development of the behavioral sciences. new views of the universe
Scientific theory and practice: Einsteinian relativity, the social effects of medical advances, development of the behavioral sciences. new views of the universe
The revolution in transportation and communications: steam navigation and the beginning of air travel; the internal-combustion engine; the telegraph, telephone, and radio; industrialization on the eve of World War I
The revolution in transportation and communications: steam navigation and the beginning of air travel; the internal-combustion engine; the telegraph, telephone, and radio; industrialization on the eve of World War I
International war and diplomacy from 1850 to c. 1920: Realpolitik and European diplomatic realignments
International war and diplomacy from 1850 to c. 1920: Realpolitik and European diplomatic realignments
Bismarck's system of alliances: the Dreikaiserbund and the isolation of France. the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) and the Congress of Berlin (1878-79), the Triple Alliance (1882)
Bismarck's system of alliances: the Dreikaiserbund and the isolation of France. the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) and the Congress of Berlin (1878-79), the Triple Alliance (1882)
The Franco-Russian alliance (from 1893) and the Entente Cordiale (1904): Russia's defeat in the Far East (1904-05) and the formation of the Triple Entente (1907)
The Franco-Russian alliance (from 1893) and the Entente Cordiale (1904): Russia's defeat in the Far East (1904-05) and the formation of the Triple Entente (1907)
Renewed interest in overseas expansion by the European powers in the late 19th century: new acquisitions and new colonial powers, development of new theories of imperialism
Renewed interest in overseas expansion by the European powers in the late 19th century: new acquisitions and new colonial powers, development of new theories of imperialism
The Serbian crisis and general mobilization: the opening German offensive in the east and west (August 1914), stabilization of the Western Front, trench warfare, new military technology (air power, tanks, and poison gas), the Battle of Verdun, renewed stalemate
The Serbian crisis and general mobilization: the opening German offensive in the east and west (August 1914), stabilization of the Western Front, trench warfare, new military technology (air power, tanks, and poison gas), the Battle of Verdun, renewed stalemate
German submarine warfare and the U.S. entry into the war (1917); the Russian Revolution (1917), military collapse, and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918); the last Allied offensive and the armistice (1918)
German submarine warfare and the U.S. entry into the war (1917); the Russian Revolution (1917), military collapse, and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918); the last Allied offensive and the armistice (1918)
The Paris Peace Conference (1919-20) and the peace treaty: Wilson's influence; German reparations, restrictions, and territorial losses; reorganization of central Europe and the Middle East by the Allies; the mandates and the League of Nations
The Paris Peace Conference (1919-20) and the peace treaty: Wilson's influence; German reparations, restrictions, and territorial losses; reorganization of central Europe and the Middle East by the Allies; the mandates and the League of Nations
Mid-Victorian politics and economics: liberalism and free trade, the Great Exhibition (1851), Russell's and Palmerston's foreign policies regarding the Crimean War and thi Indian Mutiny, Second Reform Bill (1867)
Mid-Victorian politics and economics: liberalism and free trade, the Great Exhibition (1851), Russell's and Palmerston's foreign policies regarding the Crimean War and thi Indian Mutiny, Second Reform Bill (1867)
Mid-Victorian society and religion: Victorian social attitudes (duty. thrift, hard work, and character), liberalism and the High Church movement, revival of Scottish Calvinism
Mid-Victorian society and religion: Victorian social attitudes (duty. thrift, hard work, and character), liberalism and the High Church movement, revival of Scottish Calvinism
Gladstone's liberalism and "Tory Democracy" and imperialism under Disraeli; Third Reform Bill (1884); the Irish Question and the rise of Fenianism, Parnell. and the Home Rule movement; Chamberlain and the split in the Liberal Party: Fabian socialism and growth of the Labour movement; South African War (1899-1902)
Gladstone's liberalism and "Tory Democracy" and imperialism under Disraeli; Third Reform Bill (1884); the Irish Question and the rise of Fenianism, Parnell. and the Home Rule movement; Chamberlain and the split in the Liberal Party: Fabian socialism and growth of the Labour movement; South African War (1899-1902)
The return of the Liberals (1905-14): Lloyd George's people's budget and National Insurance Act (1911), Parliament Act of 1911, continuing struggle over Ireland and Unionism in Ulster
The return of the Liberals (1905-14): Lloyd George's people's budget and National Insurance Act (1911), Parliament Act of 1911, continuing struggle over Ireland and Unionism in Ulster
Napoleon III's authoritarian policies and reassertion of France's role in Europe (the Crimea and Italy): partnership with Britain (1852-60), the liberal years (1859-70), foreign policy failures and defeat by Germany (1871)
Napoleon III's authoritarian policies and reassertion of France's role in Europe (the Crimea and Italy): partnership with Britain (1852-60), the liberal years (1859-70), foreign policy failures and defeat by Germany (1871)
The siege of Paris, the Commune, and the establishment of the Third Republic (1870); attempts at restoration; the "Republican Republic"; opportunist control under Gambetta; the Boulangists; colonial expansion; the Dreyfus affair; separation of church and state (1905)
The siege of Paris, the Commune, and the establishment of the Third Republic (1870); attempts at restoration; the "Republican Republic"; opportunist control under Gambetta; the Boulangists; colonial expansion; the Dreyfus affair; separation of church and state (1905)
World War I (1914-18): German occupation of northeastern France, the crisis of 1917, the Clemenceau government, French human and material losses in the war
World War I (1914-18): German occupation of northeastern France, the crisis of 1917, the Clemenceau government, French human and material losses in the war
Prussian and Austrian differences over the subjugation of Schleswig-Holstein (186466), the exclusion of Austria and the union of north and south Germany in the German Empire after the defeat of France (1871)
Prussian and Austrian differences over the subjugation of Schleswig-Holstein (186466), the exclusion of Austria and the union of north and south Germany in the German Empire after the defeat of France (1871)
Bismarck as imperial chancellor (1871-90): Kulturkampf and the breach with the National Liberals, anti-Socialist measures and social legislation, Bismarck's consolidation of German power and formation of the Triple Alliance (1882)
Bismarck as imperial chancellor (1871-90): Kulturkampf and the breach with the National Liberals, anti-Socialist measures and social legislation, Bismarck's consolidation of German power and formation of the Triple Alliance (1882)
The accession of Emperor William II (1888) and the fall of Bismarck; chancellorships of Caprivi, Hohenlohe, and Billow (1890-1909); estrangement from Russia and rivalry with Britain; colonial expansion; militarists and Social Democrats in the period before World War I
The accession of Emperor William II (1888) and the fall of Bismarck; chancellorships of Caprivi, Hohenlohe, and Billow (1890-1909); estrangement from Russia and rivalry with Britain; colonial expansion; militarists and Social Democrats in the period before World War I
Constitutional experiments: the Kremsier and Stadion constitutions; the "Bach System," the October Diploma (1860), and the February Patent (1861); federalism and centralism (1850-67); the role of Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916); exclusion from Italy (1859) and Germany (1866); the Ausgleich (Compromise) and the establishment of the Dual Monarchy (1867)
Constitutional experiments: the Kremsier and Stadion constitutions; the "Bach System," the October Diploma (1860), and the February Patent (1861); federalism and centralism (1850-67); the role of Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916); exclusion from Italy (1859) and Germany (1866); the Ausgleich (Compromise) and the establishment of the Dual Monarchy (1867)
Austria: the liberal ascendancy under the Auersperg ministry (1871-78) and the coalition of clericals, German aristocrats, and Slays under Taaffe (1879-93); relations between Austrians and Slavic minorities in the empire; the introduction of universal male suffrage (1907); foreign policy (1878-1908); annexation of Bosnia and Hercegovina and the crises in the Balkans
Austria: the liberal ascendancy under the Auersperg ministry (1871-78) and the coalition of clericals, German aristocrats, and Slays under Taaffe (1879-93); relations between Austrians and Slavic minorities in the empire; the introduction of universal male suffrage (1907); foreign policy (1878-1908); annexation of Bosnia and Hercegovina and the crises in the Balkans
Hungary: the Andrissy government, internal conflict between the opponents and advocates of the Compromise of 1867, social reforms and economic progress, Magyar supremacy maintained under Tisza (1875-90)
Hungary: the Andrissy government, internal conflict between the opponents and advocates of the Compromise of 1867, social reforms and economic progress, Magyar supremacy maintained under Tisza (1875-90)
Adherence to the Triple Alliance, increasing governmental paralysis and subordination to Germany during World War I, the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy (1918) and the dismemberment of the empire
Adherence to the Triple Alliance, increasing governmental paralysis and subordination to Germany during World War I, the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy (1918) and the dismemberment of the empire
Defeat in the Crimean War (1853-56), abolition of serfdom (1861) and local government reforms under Alexander II (1855-81), Polish rebellion of 1863 and the spread of revolutionary sentiment, the assassination of the Tsar (1881)
Defeat in the Crimean War (1853-56), abolition of serfdom (1861) and local government reforms under Alexander II (1855-81), Polish rebellion of 1863 and the spread of revolutionary sentiment, the assassination of the Tsar (1881)
Reversal of the reform movement under Alexander III (1881-94), the zemstros, government hostility to non-Russian minorities, Nicholas II (1894-1917), anti-reform policies, foundation of the Social Democrats and Social Revolutionaries
Reversal of the reform movement under Alexander III (1881-94), the zemstros, government hostility to non-Russian minorities, Nicholas II (1894-1917), anti-reform policies, foundation of the Social Democrats and Social Revolutionaries
Cavour and the unification of Italy under Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont: alliance with France and domestic liberalism, papal opposition, Austrian defeat and territorial cessions in northern Italy in the war of 1859, Garibaldi and the conquest of the south, the annexation of Venetia from Austria (1866) and acquisition of Rome (1870)
Cavour and the unification of Italy under Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont: alliance with France and domestic liberalism, papal opposition, Austrian defeat and territorial cessions in northern Italy in the war of 1859, Garibaldi and the conquest of the south, the annexation of Venetia from Austria (1866) and acquisition of Rome (1870)
The Kingdom of Italy: Minghetti, Depretis, and Crispi; Italian adherence to the Triple Alliance; growth of Socialism, labour movements, and militant nationalism; the Giolitti era; participation in World War I
The Kingdom of Italy: Minghetti, Depretis, and Crispi; Italian adherence to the Triple Alliance; growth of Socialism, labour movements, and militant nationalism; the Giolitti era; participation in World War I
Continued civil strife in Spain: control by the military; Carlists, inoderados, progressistas, and republicans; the First Republic (1873-74); constitutional monarchy in 1876; further colonial losses in the Spanish-American War (1898)
Continued civil strife in Spain: control by the military; Carlists, inoderados, progressistas, and republicans; the First Republic (1873-74); constitutional monarchy in 1876; further colonial losses in the Spanish-American War (1898)
Alternating progressive and conservative governments in Portugal under Pedro V (1853-61) and Luis 1 (1861-89), dispute with Great Britain over colonial policies, financial difficulties, dictatorship in 1906, the Portuguese Republic (1910) and Portugal's adherence to the British alliance in World War I
Alternating progressive and conservative governments in Portugal under Pedro V (1853-61) and Luis 1 (1861-89), dispute with Great Britain over colonial policies, financial difficulties, dictatorship in 1906, the Portuguese Republic (1910) and Portugal's adherence to the British alliance in World War I
Denmark: the Schleswig-Holstein question, defeat by Prussia and Austria (1864) and loss of the duchies, social and economic change under the Conservative regime
Denmark: the Schleswig-Holstein question, defeat by Prussia and Austria (1864) and loss of the duchies, social and economic change under the Conservative regime
Sweden-Norway: parliamentary reforms in Sweden under Charles XV (1859-72), foreign policy, attitudes in Sweden and in Norway toward the Swedish-Norwegian union
Sweden-Norway: parliamentary reforms in Sweden under Charles XV (1859-72), foreign policy, attitudes in Sweden and in Norway toward the Swedish-Norwegian union
Belgian Liberal government (1857-84), rise of Catholic and Belgian Workers' (Socialist) parties, the education controversy and Catholic party rule (1884-1914), universal male suffrage and child labour laws, Leopold il's establishment of Congo Free State (1885) and annexation as Belgian Congo (1908), Flemish resistance to the French-speaking elite
Belgian Liberal government (1857-84), rise of Catholic and Belgian Workers' (Socialist) parties, the education controversy and Catholic party rule (1884-1914), universal male suffrage and child labour laws, Leopold il's establishment of Congo Free State (1885) and annexation as Belgian Congo (1908), Flemish resistance to the French-speaking elite
Greece: the overthrow of Otho I (1862), the constitution of 1864, acquisition of the Ionian Islands (1864) and Thessaly (1881). Cretan union with Greece (1908), Venizelos' policies, eventual adherence to the Triple Entente in World War I
Greece: the overthrow of Otho I (1862), the constitution of 1864, acquisition of the Ionian Islands (1864) and Thessaly (1881). Cretan union with Greece (1908), Venizelos' policies, eventual adherence to the Triple Entente in World War I
Serbia: restoration of Milos Obrenovie in 1858, defeat by Turkey (1876), the Kingdom of Serbia (1882), the pro-Austrian policy of the Obrenovie dynasty, restoration of the Karageorgevie dynasty and pro-Russian orientation, conflict with Austria-Hungary, conquest by the Central Powers in World War I
Serbia: restoration of Milos Obrenovie in 1858, defeat by Turkey (1876), the Kingdom of Serbia (1882), the pro-Austrian policy of the Obrenovie dynasty, restoration of the Karageorgevie dynasty and pro-Russian orientation, conflict with Austria-Hungary, conquest by the Central Powers in World War I
Bulgaria: "great Bulgaria" established by the Treaty of San Stefano (1878), Prince Alexander I and Russian influence (1879-86), Ferdinand 1 (1887-1918) and Stambolov's formation of a government, revolt of the Macedonian minority (1903), separation from Turkey (1908), adherence to the Central Powers in World War I
Bulgaria: "great Bulgaria" established by the Treaty of San Stefano (1878), Prince Alexander I and Russian influence (1879-86), Ferdinand 1 (1887-1918) and Stambolov's formation of a government, revolt of the Macedonian minority (1903), separation from Turkey (1908), adherence to the Central Powers in World War I
Romania: union of Moldavia and Walachia under Alexandru Cuza (1861), Carol I (1866-1914; king after 1881), independence from Turkey (1878). alignment with the Triple Entente and conquest by the Central Powers in World War I
Romania: union of Moldavia and Walachia under Alexandru Cuza (1861), Carol I (1866-1914; king after 1881), independence from Turkey (1878). alignment with the Triple Entente and conquest by the Central Powers in World War I
European Colonies in the Americas from 1492 to c. 1790
European Colonies in the Americas from 1492 to c. 1790
Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas, other European powers in South America and the Caribbean to c. 1790
Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas, other European powers in South America and the Caribbean to c. 1790
Spanish discovery, exploration, and conquest of the Caribbean islands, Mexico, Central America, Peru, Venezuela, Colombia, and Rio de la Plata (1492–c. 1550)
Spanish discovery, exploration, and conquest of the Caribbean islands, Mexico, Central America, Peru, Venezuela, Colombia, and Rio de la Plata (1492–c. 1550)
Indian policy: slavery and peonage under the encomienda and repartimiento, the missionary role of the Roman Catholic Church, decline of the Indian population. introduction of black slaves
Indian policy: slavery and peonage under the encomienda and repartimiento, the missionary role of the Roman Catholic Church, decline of the Indian population. introduction of black slaves
The exploration and colonization of Brazil by the Portuguese (from 1500)
The exploration and colonization of Brazil by the Portuguese (from 1500)
Colonial administration: establishment of captaincies (1533), centralized royal control (1549), role of the Roman Catholic Church, the Brazilian racial mixture
Colonial administration: establishment of captaincies (1533), centralized royal control (1549), role of the Roman Catholic Church, the Brazilian racial mixture
Administrative reforms of the Spanish Bourbon kings (1700-88): decentralization of the governments of Peru, Venezuela, and Chile; encouragement of trade and agriculture
Administrative reforms of the Spanish Bourbon kings (1700-88): decentralization of the governments of Peru, Venezuela, and Chile; encouragement of trade and agriculture
English, French, and Dutch territorial and economic expansion (from c. 1600) into areas of Spanish and Portuguese colonization in Latin America and the Caribbean
English, French, and Dutch territorial and economic expansion (from c. 1600) into areas of Spanish and Portuguese colonization in Latin America and the Caribbean
Norse, English, Dutch, and Swedish discoveries, explorations, and settlements in North America (c. 1000-1763)
Norse, English, Dutch, and Swedish discoveries, explorations, and settlements in North America (c. 1000-1763)
Development of the English colonies in North America
Development of the English colonies in North America
Colonial cultural and scientific achievements; e.g., the American Philosophical Society, newspapers and almanacs, the beginning of public education, the "Great Awakening"
Colonial cultural and scientific achievements; e.g., the American Philosophical Society, newspapers and almanacs, the beginning of public education, the "Great Awakening"
Development of the United States and Canada from 1763 to 1920
Development of the United States and Canada from 1763 to 1920
The United States to 1865: national formation and territorial expansion, conflict between North and South
The United States to 1865: national formation and territorial expansion, conflict between North and South
Establishment and consolidation of the United States (1763-1816)
Establishment and consolidation of the United States (1763-1816)
Development of national policies and formation of political parties: Hamilton's economic policies, foreign relations during the administrations of Washington and John Adams, Federalists and Democratic-Republicans
Development of national policies and formation of political parties: Hamilton's economic policies, foreign relations during the administrations of Washington and John Adams, Federalists and Democratic-Republicans
The United States from 1816 to 1850: nationalism, expansionism, extension of the franchise, and industrialization
The United States from 1816 to 1850: nationalism, expansionism, extension of the franchise, and industrialization
Jacksonian democracy (1829-41): extension of the franchise; development of Democratic, Whig, and minor party politics; bank war; nullification; Indian removal policy
Jacksonian democracy (1829-41): extension of the franchise; development of Democratic, Whig, and minor party politics; bank war; nullification; Indian removal policy
Westward expansionism: annexation of Texas, acquisition of Oregon, the Mexican War (1846-48) and the annexation of California and New Mexico, the Compromise of 1850
Westward expansionism: annexation of Texas, acquisition of Oregon, the Mexican War (1846-48) and the annexation of California and New Mexico, the Compromise of 1850
The United States from 1850 to 1865: sectionalism, secession, and Civil War
The United States from 1850 to 1865: sectionalism, secession, and Civil War
Sectionalism and slavery: economic and psychological bases of slavery, the failure of popular sovereignty, the Abolitionist movement, literature of the period
Sectionalism and slavery: economic and psychological bases of slavery, the failure of popular sovereignty, the Abolitionist movement, literature of the period
Political and geographical polarization: disruption of the Democratic and Whig parties, emergence of the Republican Party, and Lincoln's election (1860)
Political and geographical polarization: disruption of the Democratic and Whig parties, emergence of the Republican Party, and Lincoln's election (1860)
The United States from 1865 to 1920: Reconstruction, industrialization, increased immigration, development of the West, and emergence as a world power
The United States from 1865 to 1920: Reconstruction, industrialization, increased immigration, development of the West, and emergence as a world power
Radical Reconstruction (1866-77) and the New South (1877-1900)
Radical Reconstruction (1866-77) and the New South (1877-1900)
Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction and congressional opposition (1864-65), conflicts between the Radical Republican-controlled Congress and Andrew Johnson, state "Black Codes" and federal civil rights legislation
Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction and congressional opposition (1864-65), conflicts between the Radical Republican-controlled Congress and Andrew Johnson, state "Black Codes" and federal civil rights legislation
Reconstruction (1866-77): freedmen, sharecropping, and "Black Reconstruction"; Grant's administrations and the decline of Republican control in the South
Reconstruction (1866-77): freedmen, sharecropping, and "Black Reconstruction"; Grant's administrations and the decline of Republican control in the South
The New South (1877-1900): conservative Democrats in control and erosion of black rights, Populist resurgence in the 1890s. white supremacy and Jim Crow legislation, the black response
The New South (1877-1900): conservative Democrats in control and erosion of black rights, Populist resurgence in the 1890s. white supremacy and Jim Crow legislation, the black response
The transformation of American society: the United States from 1865 to 1900
The transformation of American society: the United States from 1865 to 1900
Urbanization and immigration: southern and eastern European immigrants and growth of slums, problems of prejudice, rise of city machine politics, development of public education
Urbanization and immigration: southern and eastern European immigrants and growth of slums, problems of prejudice, rise of city machine politics, development of public education
Emergence of national labour union organizations: strikes and boycotts, collective bargaining, antilabour stance of government, the Haymarket Riot (1886)
Emergence of national labour union organizations: strikes and boycotts, collective bargaining, antilabour stance of government, the Haymarket Riot (1886)
Aftermath of the disputed election of 1876: the Compromise of 1877, the end of Southern Reconstruction, and Hayes's administration (1877-81); inflation and the silver issue
Aftermath of the disputed election of 1876: the Compromise of 1877, the end of Southern Reconstruction, and Hayes's administration (1877-81); inflation and the silver issue
The election of 1880 and the presidency of Garfield: Garfield's assassination (1881), Arthur's administration (1881-85). establishment of the Civil Service Commission (1883)
The election of 1880 and the presidency of Garfield: Garfield's assassination (1881), Arthur's administration (1881-85). establishment of the Civil Service Commission (1883)
The election of 1884 and Cleveland's first administration (1885-89): the reemergence of presidential leadership, the Treasury surplus and tariff issues, the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and federal regulation of railroads
The election of 1884 and Cleveland's first administration (1885-89): the reemergence of presidential leadership, the Treasury surplus and tariff issues, the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and federal regulation of railroads
The election of 1888 and Benjamin Harrison's administration (1889-93): congressional leadership, the Sherman Anti-Trust and Sherman Silver Purchase acts, and the McKinley Tariff Act (1890)
The election of 1888 and Benjamin Harrison's administration (1889-93): congressional leadership, the Sherman Anti-Trust and Sherman Silver Purchase acts, and the McKinley Tariff Act (1890)
Depressed agricultural conditions (1887-97): the Farmers' Alliances and the establishment of the Populist Party (1891), farmers' defection from Republican Party
Depressed agricultural conditions (1887-97): the Farmers' Alliances and the establishment of the Populist Party (1891), farmers' defection from Republican Party
The election of 1892 and Cleveland's second administration (1893-97): gold reserves and the Panic of 1893. repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1893), lowering of the tariff
The election of 1892 and Cleveland's second administration (1893-97): gold reserves and the Panic of 1893. repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1893), lowering of the tariff
The election of 1896 and McKinley's administration (1897-1901): the raising of the tariff (1897) and the Gold Standard Act (1900), gradual economic recovery
The election of 1896 and McKinley's administration (1897-1901): the raising of the tariff (1897) and the Gold Standard Act (1900), gradual economic recovery
Imperialism, the Progressive Era, and the rise to world power (1896-1920) a. The emergence of the U.S. as an imperial power
Imperialism, the Progressive Era, and the rise to world power (1896-1920) a. The emergence of the U.S. as an imperial power
Acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone (1903) and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: intervention in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Nicaragua
Acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone (1903) and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: intervention in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Nicaragua
Theodore Roosevelt's administrations (1901-09) and expansion of presidential power and regulatory legislation, Taft's administration (1909-13) and the defection of Progressive Republicans in the 1912 election
Theodore Roosevelt's administrations (1901-09) and expansion of presidential power and regulatory legislation, Taft's administration (1909-13) and the defection of Progressive Republicans in the 1912 election
Wilson's policies at the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and the U.S. Senate rejection of the Treaty of Versailles (1920), the election of 1920 and the return to isolationism
Wilson's policies at the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and the U.S. Senate rejection of the Treaty of Versailles (1920), the election of 1920 and the return to isolationism
Canada under British colonial rule from 1763 to 1867, the Dominion of Canada from 1867 to 1920
Canada under British colonial rule from 1763 to 1867, the Dominion of Canada from 1867 to 1920
British colonial administration: the Quebec Acts of 1763 and 1774, immigration of United Empire Loyalists after U.S. War of Independence, establishment of French- and English-speaking provinces
British colonial administration: the Quebec Acts of 1763 and 1774, immigration of United Empire Loyalists after U.S. War of Independence, establishment of French- and English-speaking provinces
Social, political, and economic development from 1790 to 1850
Social, political, and economic development from 1790 to 1850
Dissension between French and English settlers: the rebellions of 1837, the Union of Upper and Lower Canada (1841), self-government for domestic affairs (1848)
Dissension between French and English settlers: the rebellions of 1837, the Union of Upper and Lower Canada (1841), self-government for domestic affairs (1848)
The transcontinental railroad, suppression of the second Mêtis-Indian rebellion (1885), economic depression and downfall of the Conservative government (1896)
The transcontinental railroad, suppression of the second Mêtis-Indian rebellion (1885), economic depression and downfall of the Conservative government (1896)
Development of the Latin-American and Caribbean nations to c. 1920
Development of the Latin-American and Caribbean nations to c. 1920
The Latin-American independence movement (1790-1825)
The Latin-American independence movement (1790-1825)
Background of the Latin-American wars of independence
Background of the Latin-American wars of independence
Spanish involvement in European wars: the Peninsular War in Spain (1808-14), Napoleon's seizure of the Spanish throne and Creole support of Ferdinand VII
Spanish involvement in European wars: the Peninsular War in Spain (1808-14), Napoleon's seizure of the Spanish throne and Creole support of Ferdinand VII
The Spanish South American War of Independence (1810-25), the establishment of the independent Empire of Brazil (1822)
The Spanish South American War of Independence (1810-25), the establishment of the independent Empire of Brazil (1822)
Establishment of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (1813) at Buenos Aires; division of provinces into states of Paraguay, Buenos Aires, and Uruguay (1828)
Establishment of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (1813) at Buenos Aires; division of provinces into states of Paraguay, Buenos Aires, and Uruguay (1828)
San Martin's withdrawal and assumption of control by Simon Bolivar, final defeat of Spanish troops (1824), Upper Peru's emergence as independent state of Bolivia (1825) under Sucre
San Martin's withdrawal and assumption of control by Simon Bolivar, final defeat of Spanish troops (1824), Upper Peru's emergence as independent state of Bolivia (1825) under Sucre
The Portuguese government in exile in Brazil (1808-22): reforms of King John VI (181622), establishment of the independent Empire of Brazil under Pedro I (1822)
The Portuguese government in exile in Brazil (1808-22): reforms of King John VI (181622), establishment of the independent Empire of Brazil under Pedro I (1822)
The Mexican War of Independence (1810-21): Hidalgo's revolt (1810-11), social and economic reforms under Morelos (1811-15), Iturbide's leadership (1820-21)
The Mexican War of Independence (1810-21): Hidalgo's revolt (1810-11), social and economic reforms under Morelos (1811-15), Iturbide's leadership (1820-21)
Mexico from independence (1821) through the end of the Revolution (1917) 1. Mexico from 1821 to 1855
Mexico from independence (1821) through the end of the Revolution (1917) 1. Mexico from 1821 to 1855
The independent Mexican Empire under Iturbide (1821-23), Santa Anna and the establishment of the Mexican Republic (1824), the constitution of 1824, Centralist-Federalist struggles
The independent Mexican Empire under Iturbide (1821-23), Santa Anna and the establishment of the Mexican Republic (1824), the constitution of 1824, Centralist-Federalist struggles
Santa Anna's military career and intermittent terms as president (1833 to 1855): the Alamo (1836); war with U.S. (1846-48) over Texas, New Mexico, and California
Santa Anna's military career and intermittent terms as president (1833 to 1855): the Alamo (1836); war with U.S. (1846-48) over Texas, New Mexico, and California
French intervention (1862) and Emperor Maximilian's puppet rule (1864-67): attempted liberal reforms; loss of conservative support; French withdrawal, defeat of imperial forces, and Maximilian's execution (1867)
French intervention (1862) and Emperor Maximilian's puppet rule (1864-67): attempted liberal reforms; loss of conservative support; French withdrawal, defeat of imperial forces, and Maximilian's execution (1867)
Restoration of the republic under Juarez' leadership (1867-72), educational and economic reforms, Lerdo's presidency (1872-76), further separation of church and state
Restoration of the republic under Juarez' leadership (1867-72), educational and economic reforms, Lerdo's presidency (1872-76), further separation of church and state
Diaz' economic and social policies: maintenance of public order and suppression of dissent, economic development through foreign investment, reconciliation with church, middle-class control of land
Diaz' economic and social policies: maintenance of public order and suppression of dissent, economic development through foreign investment, reconciliation with church, middle-class control of land
Emergence of radical and liberal political clubs (c. 1900): internal unrest; labour strikes; Madero's unsuccessful challenge to Diaz' reelection (1909); armed revolt, Diaz' resignation, and Madero's election (1911)
Emergence of radical and liberal political clubs (c. 1900): internal unrest; labour strikes; Madero's unsuccessful challenge to Diaz' reelection (1909); armed revolt, Diaz' resignation, and Madero's election (1911)
The Mexican Revolutionary period (1910-17): Huerta's coup and Madero's execution (1913); Carranza's loose alliance with Pancho Villa, Zapata, and ObregOn; civil war; the constitution of 1917; Carranza's election (1917)
The Mexican Revolutionary period (1910-17): Huerta's coup and Madero's execution (1913); Carranza's loose alliance with Pancho Villa, Zapata, and ObregOn; civil war; the constitution of 1917; Carranza's election (1917)
Independence from Spain (1821), participation in Mexican Empire (1822-23), federation of United Provinces of Central America (1823), armed conflict between Conservatives and Liberals, collapse of the federation (1838)
Independence from Spain (1821), participation in Mexican Empire (1822-23), federation of United Provinces of Central America (1823), armed conflict between Conservatives and Liberals, collapse of the federation (1838)
Guatemala from 1838 to 1920: Carrera's Conservative dictatorship (1838-65), social and economic reforms of Barrios (1873-85) and subsequent Liberal regimes to 1898, Estrada Cabrera's administration (1898-1920)
Guatemala from 1838 to 1920: Carrera's Conservative dictatorship (1838-65), social and economic reforms of Barrios (1873-85) and subsequent Liberal regimes to 1898, Estrada Cabrera's administration (1898-1920)
Honduras from 1838 to 1920: Conservative domination to the 1870s, Aurelio Soto's Liberal regime (1876), return of Conservative control (1885), U.S. investments and military intervention (1912)
Honduras from 1838 to 1920: Conservative domination to the 1870s, Aurelio Soto's Liberal regime (1876), return of Conservative control (1885), U.S. investments and military intervention (1912)
Nicaragua from 1838 to 1920: Liberal-Conservative conflicts, foreign intervention in the 1850s, stable Conservative governments (1857-93), economic growth, Zelaya's Liberal regime (1893-1909), U.S. military intervention from 1910
Nicaragua from 1838 to 1920: Liberal-Conservative conflicts, foreign intervention in the 1850s, stable Conservative governments (1857-93), economic growth, Zelaya's Liberal regime (1893-1909), U.S. military intervention from 1910
Costa Rica from 1838 to 1920: the coffee economy and social stability, Guardia dictatorship (1870-82) and the 1871 constitution, orderly presidential succession after 1890, Rio San Juan dispute with Nicaragua
Costa Rica from 1838 to 1920: the coffee economy and social stability, Guardia dictatorship (1870-82) and the 1871 constitution, orderly presidential succession after 1890, Rio San Juan dispute with Nicaragua
Panama to 1920: union with Gran Colombia (1821-1903), civil war, U.S. intervention and establishment of Republic of Panama (1903), building of Panama Canal (1904-14), U.S. control of Canal Zone
Panama to 1920: union with Gran Colombia (1821-1903), civil war, U.S. intervention and establishment of Republic of Panama (1903), building of Panama Canal (1904-14), U.S. control of Canal Zone
Haiti to 1934: independence in 1804, civil war between the blacks and mulattoes, black hegemony under Christophe (later Henri I, 1806-20), ascendancy of mulattoes under Boyer (1820-43), political instability (1843-1915), U.S. military occupation (1915-34)
Haiti to 1934: independence in 1804, civil war between the blacks and mulattoes, black hegemony under Christophe (later Henri I, 1806-20), ascendancy of mulattoes under Boyer (1820-43), political instability (1843-1915), U.S. military occupation (1915-34)
Spanish suppression of Cuban liberation movement in the Ten Years' War (1868-78), economic relations with United States, the Cuban War of Independence from Spain (1895-98)
Spanish suppression of Cuban liberation movement in the Ten Years' War (1868-78), economic relations with United States, the Cuban War of Independence from Spain (1895-98)
Cuba as a U.S. protectorate until 1934: military occupation (1899-1901), Republic of Cuba (1902), later U.S. occupation (1906-09), dictatorships and the sugar industry
Cuba as a U.S. protectorate until 1934: military occupation (1899-1901), Republic of Cuba (1902), later U.S. occupation (1906-09), dictatorships and the sugar industry
Independence (1819), participation in Gran Colombia to 1830, power struggle between Conservative and Liberal parties (1840-80), social reforms, anticlericalism
Independence (1819), participation in Gran Colombia to 1830, power struggle between Conservative and Liberal parties (1840-80), social reforms, anticlericalism
Clericalism in Garcia Moreno's dictatorship (1860-75), Liberal ascendancy after 1875, Alfaro's administrations (1897-1911), social problems, depression in the 1920s
Clericalism in Garcia Moreno's dictatorship (1860-75), Liberal ascendancy after 1875, Alfaro's administrations (1897-1911), social problems, depression in the 1920s
Establishment of republic (1824). power struggle among caudillos (1824-41), temporary union with Bolivia (1836-39), orderly government under Castilla (1845-51 and 1855-62)
Establishment of republic (1824). power struggle among caudillos (1824-41), temporary union with Bolivia (1836-39), orderly government under Castilla (1845-51 and 1855-62)
Spanish military invasion (1864-69), Pardo's civilian government (1872-76) and economic crises, War of the Pacific (1879-84) and loss of territory to Chile, establishment of Peruvian Corporation (1889)
Spanish military invasion (1864-69), Pardo's civilian government (1872-76) and economic crises, War of the Pacific (1879-84) and loss of territory to Chile, establishment of Peruvian Corporation (1889)
Economic and social reforms of Piêrola's administration (1895-1908), conflict between Democratic and Civilian parties, Leguia's administrations (1908-12 and 1919-30) and economic development, formation of the Aprista Movement
Economic and social reforms of Piêrola's administration (1895-1908), conflict between Democratic and Civilian parties, Leguia's administrations (1908-12 and 1919-30) and economic development, formation of the Aprista Movement
Dictatorship of Santa Cruz (1829-39), temporary union with Peru (1836-39), silver-mining boom, War of the Pacific (1879-84) and territorial loss to Chile
Dictatorship of Santa Cruz (1829-39), temporary union with Peru (1836-39), silver-mining boom, War of the Pacific (1879-84) and territorial loss to Chile
Conservative Party rule (1880-99), economic growth, the Federal Revolution (1899), Montes' leadership in Liberal Party rule (1899-1920), growth of tin-mining industry, Republican Party coup (1920), economic decline
Conservative Party rule (1880-99), economic growth, the Federal Revolution (1899), Montes' leadership in Liberal Party rule (1899-1920), growth of tin-mining industry, Republican Party coup (1920), economic decline
Chile from the 1810 establishment of the republic to 1860
Chile from the 1810 establishment of the republic to 1860
Bernardo O'Higgins as head of state (1817-23): liberal reforms and conservative opposition, O'Higgins' abdication (1823), political instability (1823-30)
Bernardo O'Higgins as head of state (1817-23): liberal reforms and conservative opposition, O'Higgins' abdication (1823), political instability (1823-30)
The conservative hegemony (1830-61): the 1833 constitution; political stability and conservative governments under Portales, Ovalle, Prieto, Bulnes, and Montt; economic prosperity; growth of liberal faction
The conservative hegemony (1830-61): the 1833 constitution; political stability and conservative governments under Portales, Ovalle, Prieto, Bulnes, and Montt; economic prosperity; growth of liberal faction
The widening of liberal influence and the growth of political splinter groups (1861-91)
The widening of liberal influence and the growth of political splinter groups (1861-91)
The "Liberal Republic" under Perez (1861-71) and the liberal-conservative alliance: cultural and economic ties with Great Britain, political conflict over church-state relations (1872)
The "Liberal Republic" under Perez (1861-71) and the liberal-conservative alliance: cultural and economic ties with Great Britain, political conflict over church-state relations (1872)
The War of the Pacific (1879-84) and threatened European intervention: annexation of saltpetre-mining provinces from Peru and Bolivia, civil war and Balmaceda's abdication (1891)
The War of the Pacific (1879-84) and threatened European intervention: annexation of saltpetre-mining provinces from Peru and Bolivia, civil war and Balmaceda's abdication (1891)
The parliamentary republic (1891-1920): era of legislative supremacy; growth of middle and lower classes; formation of Democratic (1887), Radical (1888), and Socialist (1901 and 1912) parties
The parliamentary republic (1891-1920): era of legislative supremacy; growth of middle and lower classes; formation of Democratic (1887), Radical (1888), and Socialist (1901 and 1912) parties
The successor states of the Rio de la Plata (excluding Bolivia) to c. 1920
The successor states of the Rio de la Plata (excluding Bolivia) to c. 1920
The Radical regimes (1916-30): Irigoyen's presidency (1916-22), continued Radical rule in the 1920s, growth of foreign influence in the economy, military coup (1930)
The Radical regimes (1916-30): Irigoyen's presidency (1916-22), continued Radical rule in the 1920s, growth of foreign influence in the economy, military coup (1930)
The Uruguayan struggle for independence and national unity (1811-1929)
The Uruguayan struggle for independence and national unity (1811-1929)
Civilian rule and continued political crises and insurrections (1890-1904), Peace of Acequd (1904) and return to orderly government, social and economic reforms, economic boom during World War I
Civilian rule and continued political crises and insurrections (1890-1904), Peace of Acequd (1904) and return to orderly government, social and economic reforms, economic boom during World War I
Brazil from the establishment of the empire to the fall of the First Republic (1822-1930)
Brazil from the establishment of the empire to the fall of the First Republic (1822-1930)
The empire under Pedro II (1840-89): intervention in Uruguayan affairs and war with Paraguay (1864-70); cessation of slave trade (1853), gradual emancipation, and abolition of slavery (1888)
The empire under Pedro II (1840-89): intervention in Uruguayan affairs and war with Paraguay (1864-70); cessation of slave trade (1853), gradual emancipation, and abolition of slavery (1888)
Brazilian participation in World War I, postwar prosperity to 1922, economic problems during the 1920s, increasing political role of the military, civil disorders leading to the revolution of 1930
Brazilian participation in World War I, postwar prosperity to 1922, economic problems during the 1920s, increasing political role of the military, civil disorders leading to the revolution of 1930
British colonization of New South Wales in 1788, expansion and development of self-government (1830-60), economic growth and the federation movement (1860-1901), the establishment of the commonwealth in 1901, social tensions, cultural developments
British colonization of New South Wales in 1788, expansion and development of self-government (1830-60), economic growth and the federation movement (1860-1901), the establishment of the commonwealth in 1901, social tensions, cultural developments
Early years of the commonwealth: establishment of a White Australia immigration policy, Labor Party reforms, industrial growth, cooperation with Britain in World War I
Early years of the commonwealth: establishment of a White Australia immigration policy, Labor Party reforms, industrial growth, cooperation with Britain in World War I
Politics and foreign relations (1890-1928): Liberal and Reform Party governments, radical politics, the Labour Party, cooperation with Britain in World War I
Politics and foreign relations (1890-1928): Liberal and Reform Party governments, radical politics, the Labour Party, cooperation with Britain in World War I
South Asia Under the Influence of European Imperialism from c. 1500 to c. 1920
South Asia Under the Influence of European Imperialism from c. 1500 to c. 1920
Portuguese commercial relations with India from 1498: establishment of the colony of Goa, decline of Portuguese hegemony and rise of British and Dutch influence
Portuguese commercial relations with India from 1498: establishment of the colony of Goa, decline of Portuguese hegemony and rise of British and Dutch influence
Growth of the political power of the British East India Company and attempts by the British crown to regulate its affairs
Growth of the political power of the British East India Company and attempts by the British crown to regulate its affairs
Expansion and consolidation of British control over various Indian states during administrations of Lord Wellesley (1798-1805), Lord Minto (1807-13), and Lord Hastings (1813-23)
Expansion and consolidation of British control over various Indian states during administrations of Lord Wellesley (1798-1805), Lord Minto (1807-13), and Lord Hastings (1813-23)
The cause, outbreak, suppression, and effects of the Indian Mutiny (1857-59): the British crown's assumption of total responsibility for the government of India
The cause, outbreak, suppression, and effects of the Indian Mutiny (1857-59): the British crown's assumption of total responsibility for the government of India
British foreign policy in India: conflicts with Russia over the northwest frontier, the incorporation of Burma (1886), the Second Afghan War (1878-80) and the creation of the North-West Frontier Province (1901), the Third Afghan War (1919)
British foreign policy in India: conflicts with Russia over the northwest frontier, the incorporation of Burma (1886), the Second Afghan War (1878-80) and the creation of the North-West Frontier Province (1901), the Third Afghan War (1919)
Beginning of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century and the British response: formation of the Indian National Congress (1885), policies of Lord Curzon (1899-1905), partition of Bengal, founding of the nationalist Muslim League, the Indian Councils Act of 1909
Beginning of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century and the British response: formation of the Indian National Congress (1885), policies of Lord Curzon (1899-1905), partition of Bengal, founding of the nationalist Muslim League, the Indian Councils Act of 1909
World War I and its aftermath: India's contribution to the war effort, anti-British activity, the Amritsar massacre, the Government of India Act (1919), Hindu–Muslim relations, the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi and the adoption of his noncooperation policy
World War I and its aftermath: India's contribution to the war effort, anti-British activity, the Amritsar massacre, the Government of India Act (1919), Hindu–Muslim relations, the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi and the adoption of his noncooperation policy
Dutch rule in Ceylon (1658-1796) and its influence on the political, economic, judicial, and administrative systems; commercial enterprises and missionary attempts
Dutch rule in Ceylon (1658-1796) and its influence on the political, economic, judicial, and administrative systems; commercial enterprises and missionary attempts
The British in Ceylon from 1796: unification and early administration, the reforms of 1833, the transition from a subsistence to a commercial economy, the beginnings of constitutional government, nationalist unrest during World War I
The British in Ceylon from 1796: unification and early administration, the reforms of 1833, the transition from a subsistence to a commercial economy, the beginnings of constitutional government, nationalist unrest during World War I
Nepal's territorial expansion under the Shah rulers, decline of Shah family and rise of Thapa and Rana families, accommodation with the British to preserve Nepal's independence
Nepal's territorial expansion under the Shah rulers, decline of Shah family and rise of Thapa and Rana families, accommodation with the British to preserve Nepal's independence
Southeast Asia Under the Influence of European Imperialism to c. 1920
Southeast Asia Under the Influence of European Imperialism to c. 1920
The states and European colonies of mainland Southeast Asia from c. 1600 to c. 1920
The states and European colonies of mainland Southeast Asia from c. 1600 to c. 1920
Myanmar (Burma) and Malaya from c. 1600 to c. 1920: the advent of British rule
Myanmar (Burma) and Malaya from c. 1600 to c. 1920: the advent of British rule
Renewed expansionism and wars with the Mons, Thais, and Chinese under the Alaungpaya dynasty from 1752: the First and Second Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824-26, 1852), traditional administration in Myanmar
Renewed expansionism and wars with the Mons, Thais, and Chinese under the Alaungpaya dynasty from 1752: the First and Second Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824-26, 1852), traditional administration in Myanmar
The Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) and annexation to British India (1886), effects of British colonialism: destruction of traditional church-state relationship, impoverishment of the population
The Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) and annexation to British India (1886), effects of British colonialism: destruction of traditional church-state relationship, impoverishment of the population
Dutch intervention in the Malay states and seizure of Malacca (1641), immigration of Minangkabau from Sumatra and Buginese from Celebes (mid-17th-18th century)
Dutch intervention in the Malay states and seizure of Malacca (1641), immigration of Minangkabau from Sumatra and Buginese from Celebes (mid-17th-18th century)
British incursions into Malaya in the late 18th century, steady immigration of Chinese throughout the 19th century and resulting social unrest, British intervention and assumption of power from sultanates of Malaya from the 1870s
British incursions into Malaya in the late 18th century, steady immigration of Chinese throughout the 19th century and resulting social unrest, British intervention and assumption of power from sultanates of Malaya from the 1870s
Indochina and the development of French rule from c. 1516
Indochina and the development of French rule from c. 1516
Portuguese and French missionary involvement in Vietnam and Vietnamese reaction (15161858), French intervention in Indochina and territorial acquisition of Cochinchina and Cambodia (1858-63)
Portuguese and French missionary involvement in Vietnam and Vietnamese reaction (15161858), French intervention in Indochina and territorial acquisition of Cochinchina and Cambodia (1858-63)
Trade relations with China and other Asian countries, influence of Theravada Buddhism, Dutch and French intrusions and establishment of trade in the 1660s
Trade relations with China and other Asian countries, influence of Theravada Buddhism, Dutch and French intrusions and establishment of trade in the 1660s
Invasion by Myanmar (1767) and end of Ayutthayan kingdom domination; political reunification and establishment of Chakkri dynasty (1782); social, cultural, and legal development in the early 19th century; Chinese immigration; expansion of trade with the U.S. and with European countries; reign of Mongkut (1851-68)
Invasion by Myanmar (1767) and end of Ayutthayan kingdom domination; political reunification and establishment of Chakkri dynasty (1782); social, cultural, and legal development in the early 19th century; Chinese immigration; expansion of trade with the U.S. and with European countries; reign of Mongkut (1851-68)
Political, social, and economic reforms in the reign of Chulalongkorn (1868-1910): Anglo-French activity in Southeast Asia and acquisition of Siamese territory (1893-1909)
Political, social, and economic reforms in the reign of Chulalongkorn (1868-1910): Anglo-French activity in Southeast Asia and acquisition of Siamese territory (1893-1909)
Laos from c. 1600: establishment of separate kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Vientiane in 1707, Siamese domination from 1778, establishment of French protectorate in 1893
Laos from c. 1600: establishment of separate kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Vientiane in 1707, Siamese domination from 1778, establishment of French protectorate in 1893
The states and European colonies of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Philippines from c. 1500 to c. 1920
The states and European colonies of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Philippines from c. 1500 to c. 1920
Portuguese naval and commercial activities, domination of the Strait of Malacca, and rivalry with the Spanish in the Spice Islands; collapse of Portuguese commercial empire with the defeat by the Dutch (1641)
Portuguese naval and commercial activities, domination of the Strait of Malacca, and rivalry with the Spanish in the Spice Islands; collapse of Portuguese commercial empire with the defeat by the Dutch (1641)
Spanish control of the Philippines (1571-1898): government administration and influence of the Roman Catholic Church, land policy and overseas trade, rise of nationalism in the 19th century
Spanish control of the Philippines (1571-1898): government administration and influence of the Roman Catholic Church, land policy and overseas trade, rise of nationalism in the 19th century
The Dutch and other European powers in Indonesia from c. 1600 to c. 1920
The Dutch and other European powers in Indonesia from c. 1600 to c. 1920
The Dutch East India Company (1602-1799): Coen's establishment of Dutch commercial supremacy, company rule in Java, decline and abolition of the company
The Dutch East India Company (1602-1799): Coen's establishment of Dutch commercial supremacy, company rule in Java, decline and abolition of the company
China from 1839 Until the Onset of Revolution (to c. 1911), and Japan from the Meiji Restoration to c. 1910
China from 1839 Until the Onset of Revolution (to c. 1911), and Japan from the Meiji Restoration to c. 1910
China under the late Ch'ing: the challenges of rebellion and Western penetration
China under the late Ch'ing: the challenges of rebellion and Western penetration
Contending forces of westernization and Chinese tradition from c. 1850
Contending forces of westernization and Chinese tradition from c. 1850
Increasing foreign encroachments (1870-95): loss of Central Asian territories, problems resulting from Chinese hesitancy to engage in regular diplomatic relations, Korea and the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
Increasing foreign encroachments (1870-95): loss of Central Asian territories, problems resulting from Chinese hesitancy to engage in regular diplomatic relations, Korea and the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
The reform movement of K'ang Yu-wei, the conservative reaction, and the Boxer Rebellion (1900) as expressions of anti-foreign feelings: Western seizure of Peking (1900) and further Ch'ing concessions, U.S. Open Door policy
The reform movement of K'ang Yu-wei, the conservative reaction, and the Boxer Rebellion (1900) as expressions of anti-foreign feelings: Western seizure of Peking (1900) and further Ch'ing concessions, U.S. Open Door policy
The modernization of Japan and its emergence as a world power (1868-c. 1910)
The modernization of Japan and its emergence as a world power (1868-c. 1910)
The Meiji Restoration and the process of modernization
The Meiji Restoration and the process of modernization
Beginning of Japanese modernization: abolition of feudalism; fiscal and economic policies; growth of zaibatsu (cartels); development of national loyalties; religious, educational, and cultural policies
Beginning of Japanese modernization: abolition of feudalism; fiscal and economic policies; growth of zaibatsu (cartels); development of national loyalties; religious, educational, and cultural policies
Foreign relations in Imperial Japan: dispute with China over Korea, success in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), annexation of Korea (1910), economic expansion in China
Foreign relations in Imperial Japan: dispute with China over Korea, success in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), annexation of Korea (1910), economic expansion in China
Southwest Asia and North Africa (c. 1800-1920), and Sub-Saharan Africa (1885-c. 1920) Under the Influence of European Imperialism: the Early Colonial Period
Southwest Asia and North Africa (c. 1800-1920), and Sub-Saharan Africa (1885-c. 1920) Under the Influence of European Imperialism: the Early Colonial Period
The Ottoman Empire from 1807 to 1920: European intervention and the continuation of westernization
The Ottoman Empire from 1807 to 1920: European intervention and the continuation of westernization
The empire under Mahmud II: internal reforms and centralization, the Greek revolt (1821-32): the Egyptian revolt (1831-41), Russian intrusions in Turkey
The empire under Mahmud II: internal reforms and centralization, the Greek revolt (1821-32): the Egyptian revolt (1831-41), Russian intrusions in Turkey
Egypt, the Maghrib, and the Arabian Peninsula: the development of Arab nationalism and Zionism
Egypt, the Maghrib, and the Arabian Peninsula: the development of Arab nationalism and Zionism
Egypt under French (1798-1801) and British (1801-03) occupation, centralized administration of Muhammad `Ali and his successors (1805-82), construction of Suez Canal (1858-69), European financial and military intervention
Egypt under French (1798-1801) and British (1801-03) occupation, centralized administration of Muhammad `Ali and his successors (1805-82), construction of Suez Canal (1858-69), European financial and military intervention
Egypt under British rule (1882-1922): reforms by Baring's (later 1st Earl Cromer) administration (1883-1907), revival of nationalism, World War I and independence (1922)
Egypt under British rule (1882-1922): reforms by Baring's (later 1st Earl Cromer) administration (1883-1907), revival of nationalism, World War I and independence (1922)
The Maghrib from 1830 to c. 1930: European penetration into Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Morocco
The Maghrib from 1830 to c. 1930: European penetration into Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Morocco
Algeria from 1830 to 1920: the French conquest (1830-71) and colonial settlements, national resistance movement under Abdelkader, suppression of the Muslim population
Algeria from 1830 to 1920: the French conquest (1830-71) and colonial settlements, national resistance movement under Abdelkader, suppression of the Muslim population
Morocco from 1830 to 1920: growth of French, Spanish, and British influence and decline of the traditional government; establishment of French and Spanish zones and protectorates (1912)
Morocco from 1830 to 1920: growth of French, Spanish, and British influence and decline of the traditional government; establishment of French and Spanish zones and protectorates (1912)
Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) from c. 1834 to 1920: subjection to direct Turkish rule (1835), growth of Italian influence resulting in conquest (1911-12)
Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) from c. 1834 to 1920: subjection to direct Turkish rule (1835), growth of Italian influence resulting in conquest (1911-12)
Arab nationalism from c. 1850 to 1920, emergence of Zionism as a factor in Middle Eastern affairs
Arab nationalism from c. 1850 to 1920, emergence of Zionism as a factor in Middle Eastern affairs
Origins of the Zionist movement and Jewish immigration to Palestine after 1880, World War I developments and the beginning of conflict between Zionists and Arab nationalists
Origins of the Zionist movement and Jewish immigration to Palestine after 1880, World War I developments and the beginning of conflict between Zionists and Arab nationalists
Iran under the Qajar dynasty from 1779 to 1925, Afghanistan from 1809 to 1921
Iran under the Qajar dynasty from 1779 to 1925, Afghanistan from 1809 to 1921
Iran: the reign of Agha Mohammad Khan and the subsequent European penetration of Iran by the British and Russians, overthrow of the Qajar dynasty (1925)
Iran: the reign of Agha Mohammad Khan and the subsequent European penetration of Iran by the British and Russians, overthrow of the Qajar dynasty (1925)
The decline in the slave trade; European commercial, missionary, and exploratory activities in the 19th century; the imperialistic scramble for African colonies; the Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-85) and the European partition of Africa
The decline in the slave trade; European commercial, missionary, and exploratory activities in the 19th century; the imperialistic scramble for African colonies; the Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-85) and the European partition of Africa
The establishment of European colonies in West Africa in the late 19th century
The establishment of European colonies in West Africa in the late 19th century
Problems in establishing effective colonial regimes: military problems, control of the territories, reliance on Africans and development of indirect rule
Problems in establishing effective colonial regimes: military problems, control of the territories, reliance on Africans and development of indirect rule
Northeast Africa: foreign influences and national movements
Northeast Africa: foreign influences and national movements
The consolidation of central governmental power in Ethiopia: Tewodros II (1855-68), Yohannes IV (1872-89), and Menilek II (1889-1913); struggles against Egypt, the Sudan, and Italy
The consolidation of central governmental power in Ethiopia: Tewodros II (1855-68), Yohannes IV (1872-89), and Menilek II (1889-1913); struggles against Egypt, the Sudan, and Italy
European penetration into Central Africa during the 19th century and establishment of permanent colonies
European penetration into Central Africa during the 19th century and establishment of permanent colonies
King Leopold II's colonial enterprise in the Congo: establishment of the Belgian Congo (Congo Free State) and Belgium's Congo policies until World War I
King Leopold II's colonial enterprise in the Congo: establishment of the Belgian Congo (Congo Free State) and Belgium's Congo policies until World War I
The scramble for southern Africa, the British-Boer conflict and the establishment of the Union of South Africa (1910), curtailment of economic and political rights of Africans and Asians, the Botha (1910-19) and Smuts (1919-24) governments and National Party opposition under Hertzog
The scramble for southern Africa, the British-Boer conflict and the establishment of the Union of South Africa (1910), curtailment of economic and political rights of Africans and Asians, the Botha (1910-19) and Smuts (1919-24) governments and National Party opposition under Hertzog
International Movements, Diplomacy, and War Since 1920
International Movements, Diplomacy, and War Since 1920
Diplomacy after the Paris Peace Conference (1919-20): establishment of the League of Nations; U.S., Soviet, and German diplomatic isolation; crises concerning enforcement of the peace settlement
Diplomacy after the Paris Peace Conference (1919-20): establishment of the League of Nations; U.S., Soviet, and German diplomatic isolation; crises concerning enforcement of the peace settlement
The temporary amelioration of international relations by the Locarno (1925) and KelloggBriand (1928) agreements, European recovery and the rapprochement with Germany
The temporary amelioration of international relations by the Locarno (1925) and KelloggBriand (1928) agreements, European recovery and the rapprochement with Germany
The upsurge of strife in Asia: civil conflict in China and the Japanese seizure of Manchuria (1931-32), rise of the militarists in Japan and the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere
The upsurge of strife in Asia: civil conflict in China and the Japanese seizure of Manchuria (1931-32), rise of the militarists in Japan and the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere
The Popular Front and the Spanish Civil War (1936-39): unchecked Italian aggression against Ethiopia (1935-36), failure of the League of Nations and other diplomatic attempts (e.g., the Munich agreement) to avert war
The Popular Front and the Spanish Civil War (1936-39): unchecked Italian aggression against Ethiopia (1935-36), failure of the League of Nations and other diplomatic attempts (e.g., the Munich agreement) to avert war
Economic developments in the postwar period (1920-39)
Economic developments in the postwar period (1920-39)
The establishment of Nazi Germany and economic recovery based on rearmament, Germany's alignment with Italy and Japan, the New Deal policy in the U.S., War Communism and the New Economic Policy in the Soviet Union
The establishment of Nazi Germany and economic recovery based on rearmament, Germany's alignment with Italy and Japan, the New Deal policy in the U.S., War Communism and the New Economic Policy in the Soviet Union
German conquest of Poland (1939) and France (1940); the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939) and subsequent German invasion of the Soviet Union (1941); the Battle of Britain (1940-41) and the war in North Africa (1940-43)
German conquest of Poland (1939) and France (1940); the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939) and subsequent German invasion of the Soviet Union (1941); the Battle of Britain (1940-41) and the war in North Africa (1940-43)
Further Japanese aggression in China from 1937: the clash between U.S. and Japanese interests in the Pacific, the attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) and U.S. entry into the war
Further Japanese aggression in China from 1937: the clash between U.S. and Japanese interests in the Pacific, the attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) and U.S. entry into the war
Collapse of the German Eastern Front (1944) and Soviet conquest of eastern Europe (194445), Allied invasions of Italy (1943) and France (1944) and the defeat of Germany (1945)
Collapse of the German Eastern Front (1944) and Soviet conquest of eastern Europe (194445), Allied invasions of Italy (1943) and France (1944) and the defeat of Germany (1945)
The burgeoning of military technology; e.g., developments in communications devices, naval ships and aircraft, ground weapons and missiles, atomic bombs
The burgeoning of military technology; e.g., developments in communications devices, naval ships and aircraft, ground weapons and missiles, atomic bombs
The new Europe after the collapse of the Iron Curtain; Eastern Europe's struggle for economic and political integration with the West, movements toward democracy and free markets, renewed ethnic conflicts
The new Europe after the collapse of the Iron Curtain; Eastern Europe's struggle for economic and political integration with the West, movements toward democracy and free markets, renewed ethnic conflicts
Economic depression and labour unrest in the interwar period: formation of the first Labour government under MacDonald (1924), Baldwin's government (1924-29) and the General Strike of 1926, the National Government (1931-39)
Economic depression and labour unrest in the interwar period: formation of the first Labour government under MacDonald (1924), Baldwin's government (1924-29) and the General Strike of 1926, the National Government (1931-39)
The Labour government (1945-51) and the welfare state, role in NATO and relationship to the European Economic Community (Common Market), the Conservative government (1951-64), disintegration of the British Empire, Labour government (1964-70), Conservative government (1970-74), Labour government (1974-79), entrance into the Common Market (1973), Conservative government under Thatcher (1979-90) and denationalization of state-owned enterprises, Falklands war with Argentina (1982), Conservative government of Major (1990-97), Labour government of Blair (elected 1997), European Community/European Union issues
The Labour government (1945-51) and the welfare state, role in NATO and relationship to the European Economic Community (Common Market), the Conservative government (1951-64), disintegration of the British Empire, Labour government (1964-70), Conservative government (1970-74), Labour government (1974-79), entrance into the Common Market (1973), Conservative government under Thatcher (1979-90) and denationalization of state-owned enterprises, Falklands war with Argentina (1982), Conservative government of Major (1990-97), Labour government of Blair (elected 1997), European Community/European Union issues
Division of Ireland and establishment of the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland (1922), the Cosgrave and De Valera governments, entrance into the Common Market (1973), death of De Valera (1975), Jack Lynch as prime minister (1966-73 and 197779), the governments of Haughey, FitzGerald, Reynolds, and Bruton
Division of Ireland and establishment of the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland (1922), the Cosgrave and De Valera governments, entrance into the Common Market (1973), death of De Valera (1975), Jack Lynch as prime minister (1966-73 and 197779), the governments of Haughey, FitzGerald, Reynolds, and Bruton
Northern Ireland since 1922: growing antagonism between Roman Catholics and Protestants, economic stagnation, continuing violence, negotiations between republicans and British government
Northern Ireland since 1922: growing antagonism between Roman Catholics and Protestants, economic stagnation, continuing violence, negotiations between republicans and British government
Developments in the interwar period: internal financial crises and German reparations, collective security, the Great Depression, political instability and conflicts between right and left in the 1930s
Developments in the interwar period: internal financial crises and German reparations, collective security, the Great Depression, political instability and conflicts between right and left in the 1930s
World War II: defeat by Germany (1940) and the Vichy government; de Gaulle, the Free French, and Resistance movements; French participation in the Allied victory (1944-45)
World War II: defeat by Germany (1940) and the Vichy government; de Gaulle, the Free French, and Resistance movements; French participation in the Allied victory (1944-45)
The Fourth Republic (1946-58): constitution of the Fourth Republic; the realignment of parties; colonial independence movements; the French Indochina War, the Algerian War, and the crisis of 1958; de Gaulle's return to power
The Fourth Republic (1946-58): constitution of the Fourth Republic; the realignment of parties; colonial independence movements; the French Indochina War, the Algerian War, and the crisis of 1958; de Gaulle's return to power
The Fifth Republic: settlement of the Algerian question, independence of the French African colonies, Common Market, the student revolt of 1968, de Gaulle's retirement and continued rule by the Gaullist coalition, government of Valery Giscard d'Estaing, election of Francois Mitterrand and socialist government in 1981, cohabitation government (1986-88), reelection of Mitterand in 1988, election of the neo-Gaullist Jacques Chirac (1995)
The Fifth Republic: settlement of the Algerian question, independence of the French African colonies, Common Market, the student revolt of 1968, de Gaulle's retirement and continued rule by the Gaullist coalition, government of Valery Giscard d'Estaing, election of Francois Mitterrand and socialist government in 1981, cohabitation government (1986-88), reelection of Mitterand in 1988, election of the neo-Gaullist Jacques Chirac (1995)
The Weimar Republic (1919-33): the Weimar Constitution, reaction to the Treaty of Versailles and reparations payments, opposition from the left and the right, attempts to stabilize the republic and reestablish Germany's international position, the rise to power of National Socialists (Nazis) and the end of the republic
The Weimar Republic (1919-33): the Weimar Constitution, reaction to the Treaty of Versailles and reparations payments, opposition from the left and the right, attempts to stabilize the republic and reestablish Germany's international position, the rise to power of National Socialists (Nazis) and the end of the republic
The Third Reich (1933-45): the Nazi revolution and establishment (1934-39) of the totalitarian police state by Hitler; persecution of the Jews; rearmament, expansion in eastern Europe, and formation of Axis alliance; World War II conquests throughout Europe; defeat by Allies (1945)
The Third Reich (1933-45): the Nazi revolution and establishment (1934-39) of the totalitarian police state by Hitler; persecution of the Jews; rearmament, expansion in eastern Europe, and formation of Axis alliance; World War II conquests throughout Europe; defeat by Allies (1945)
Formation of the Federal Republic of Germany and the leadership of Konrad Adenauer, role in NATO, economic recovery, continued Christian Democratic Union rule under Erhard and Kiesinger, Social Democratic chancellors Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt, success of Ostpolitik, return to power of Christian Democrats under Helmut Kohl (1982)
Formation of the Federal Republic of Germany and the leadership of Konrad Adenauer, role in NATO, economic recovery, continued Christian Democratic Union rule under Erhard and Kiesinger, Social Democratic chancellors Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt, success of Ostpolitik, return to power of Christian Democrats under Helmut Kohl (1982)
The German Democratic Republic: the Ulbricht government, the Berlin Wall, economic hardship, political repression, the flight of the East Germans to the West, the beginning of rapprochement with the West, collective leadership under Erich Honecker (1971), formal relations between the two Germanys (1972), admission to UN (1973), fall of the communist regime (1990)
The German Democratic Republic: the Ulbricht government, the Berlin Wall, economic hardship, political repression, the flight of the East Germans to the West, the beginning of rapprochement with the West, collective leadership under Erich Honecker (1971), formal relations between the two Germanys (1972), admission to UN (1973), fall of the communist regime (1990)
Postwar Italy: the politics of the republic, the De Gasperi era (1945-53), ministerial instability, economic recovery, struggle against terrorism in the late 1970s and early 1980s, parliamentary shift to the centre-left, declining strength of the Christian Democrats, first Socialist premier (1983), political and constitutional crises in the 1990s
Postwar Italy: the politics of the republic, the De Gasperi era (1945-53), ministerial instability, economic recovery, struggle against terrorism in the late 1970s and early 1980s, parliamentary shift to the centre-left, declining strength of the Christian Democrats, first Socialist premier (1983), political and constitutional crises in the 1990s
The military government of Primo de Rivera and establishment of the republic: the Civil War, German and Italian intervention, and Franco's victory; Spain's neutralism in World War II
The military government of Primo de Rivera and establishment of the republic: the Civil War, German and Italian intervention, and Franco's victory; Spain's neutralism in World War II
Last years of the Franco regime, government under King Juan Carlos, constitution of 1978, Basque separatism, moves toward regional self-government, development of closer ties with western Europe
Last years of the Franco regime, government under King Juan Carlos, constitution of 1978, Basque separatism, moves toward regional self-government, development of closer ties with western Europe
Portugal: military revolt (1926), the Salazar regime (1928-68), the constitution of 1933, neutralism in World War II, the effort to maintain the Portuguese colonial empire in the 1950s and 1960s, revolution of 1974, end of colonial involvement, constitution of 1976, minority and coalition governments
Portugal: military revolt (1926), the Salazar regime (1928-68), the constitution of 1933, neutralism in World War II, the effort to maintain the Portuguese colonial empire in the 1950s and 1960s, revolution of 1974, end of colonial involvement, constitution of 1976, minority and coalition governments
Social and political reforms and establishment of the welfare state, neutralist foreign policy, new constitution (1975), defeat (1976) and return to power (1982) of the Social Democrats, second defeat (1991) of the Social Democrats and formation of nonsocialist coalition government
Social and political reforms and establishment of the welfare state, neutralist foreign policy, new constitution (1975), defeat (1976) and return to power (1982) of the Social Democrats, second defeat (1991) of the Social Democrats and formation of nonsocialist coalition government
Separation from Sweden (1905); World War I, the Great Depression, and gradual economic recovery; foreign policy and German occupation during World War II
Separation from Sweden (1905); World War I, the Great Depression, and gradual economic recovery; foreign policy and German occupation during World War II
Finland: liberation from Russia (1918), parliamentary government, agrarian reform, growth of political parties, language problems, foreign policy and activities during World War II, domestic and foreign policies in the postwar period, presidency of Urho Kekkonen (1956-81), neutrality and relations with the Soviet Union, economic recession and recovery since 1991
Finland: liberation from Russia (1918), parliamentary government, agrarian reform, growth of political parties, language problems, foreign policy and activities during World War II, domestic and foreign policies in the postwar period, presidency of Urho Kekkonen (1956-81), neutrality and relations with the Soviet Union, economic recession and recovery since 1991
Iceland: political developments (in union with Denmark) in the interwar period, aid to the Allies in World War II, establishment as an independent republic (1944), foreign relations, economic dependence on fishing, "cod wars" with Britain (1975-76)
Iceland: political developments (in union with Denmark) in the interwar period, aid to the Allies in World War II, establishment as an independent republic (1944), foreign relations, economic dependence on fishing, "cod wars" with Britain (1975-76)
The Low Countries since 1920: Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg in the interwar period; German occupation in World War II; postwar loss of colonial possessions and integration in the European Economic Community; Benelux membership in NATO; Dutch industrialization and development of North Sea gas; Walloon-Fleming division in Belgium and federalization along communal lines
The Low Countries since 1920: Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg in the interwar period; German occupation in World War II; postwar loss of colonial possessions and integration in the European Economic Community; Benelux membership in NATO; Dutch industrialization and development of North Sea gas; Walloon-Fleming division in Belgium and federalization along communal lines
Switzerland since 1920: Swiss neutrality in World War II, immigration and economic policies, dependence on alien workers and resulting tension, postwar neutrality policy
Switzerland since 1920: Swiss neutrality in World War II, immigration and economic policies, dependence on alien workers and resulting tension, postwar neutrality policy
The governments of 1917; the October Revolution and establishment of the Soviet government; Civil War, War Communism, and the New Economic Policy; the struggle for succession after Lenin's death (1924) and the rise of Stalin
The governments of 1917; the October Revolution and establishment of the Soviet government; Civil War, War Communism, and the New Economic Policy; the struggle for succession after Lenin's death (1924) and the rise of Stalin
World War II: consolidation in eastern Europe, the German offensive (1941) and the Battle of Stalingrad, Soviet advance into Europe, resurgent nationalism and strengthening of the regime, Soviet military and political position in 1945
World War II: consolidation in eastern Europe, the German offensive (1941) and the Battle of Stalingrad, Soviet advance into Europe, resurgent nationalism and strengthening of the regime, Soviet military and political position in 1945
Economic recovery after the war: Stalin's monopoly of power until his death (1953), Cold War relations with the U.S. and other countries, deterioration of relations with the People's Republic of China
Economic recovery after the war: Stalin's monopoly of power until his death (1953), Cold War relations with the U.S. and other countries, deterioration of relations with the People's Republic of China
The Brezhnev-Kosygin era (1964-82) and collective leadership: agricultural problems and achievements in industrial production, foreign policy and space exploration, continued censorship and discontent among intellectuals
The Brezhnev-Kosygin era (1964-82) and collective leadership: agricultural problems and achievements in industrial production, foreign policy and space exploration, continued censorship and discontent among intellectuals
Succession of Gorbachev (1985), introduction of glasnost and perestroika; economic crisis and plans for a market economy; moves toward independence by Soviet republics and resurgence of ethnic tensions; failure of hard-line communist coup and dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1991)
Succession of Gorbachev (1985), introduction of glasnost and perestroika; economic crisis and plans for a market economy; moves toward independence by Soviet republics and resurgence of ethnic tensions; failure of hard-line communist coup and dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1991)
The states of central Europe a. Austria since 1918
The states of central Europe a. Austria since 1918
Establishment of the First Republic (1918), economic reconstruction and political strife, association with Italy, authoritarian rule of the Dollfuss and Schuschnigg governments, the Anschluss (annexation by Germany) and participation in World War II
Establishment of the First Republic (1918), economic reconstruction and political strife, association with Italy, authoritarian rule of the Dollfuss and Schuschnigg governments, the Anschluss (annexation by Germany) and participation in World War II
The Second Republic: independence in 1945, Allied occupation to 1955, restoration of sovereignty and establishment as a neutral state (1955), relative economic and political stability, controversy surrounding presidency of Waldheim (1986), coalition government, questions concerning Austrian neutrality
The Second Republic: independence in 1945, Allied occupation to 1955, restoration of sovereignty and establishment as a neutral state (1955), relative economic and political stability, controversy surrounding presidency of Waldheim (1986), coalition government, questions concerning Austrian neutrality
Establishment of the republic (1918); Bela Kun's "soviet republic"; loss of Transylvania, Slovakia, and Croatia by the Treaty of Trianon (1920); the Horthy regency (1920-44); financial crisis and the rise of the radical right; reacquisition of Slovakian territory in partnership with Germany; restoration of the Trianon frontiers (1947)
Establishment of the republic (1918); Bela Kun's "soviet republic"; loss of Transylvania, Slovakia, and Croatia by the Treaty of Trianon (1920); the Horthy regency (1920-44); financial crisis and the rise of the radical right; reacquisition of Slovakian territory in partnership with Germany; restoration of the Trianon frontiers (1947)
Establishment of the People's Republic (1949): the reaction against Soviet domination in the Revolution of 1956, suppression of the revolt, the Kaddr regime, introduction of the New Economic Mechanism (1968)
Establishment of the People's Republic (1949): the reaction against Soviet domination in the Revolution of 1956, suppression of the revolt, the Kaddr regime, introduction of the New Economic Mechanism (1968)
Deterioration of the economy in the 1980s, establishment of opposition parties, voluntary abandonment of political monopoly by the communists, proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (1989), movement toward a market economy
Deterioration of the economy in the 1980s, establishment of opposition parties, voluntary abandonment of political monopoly by the communists, proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (1989), movement toward a market economy
Discontent among Sudeten German and Slovak minorities; attempts at rapprochement with Germany, the Munich agreement (1938) and German occupation (1938-39); liberation by the Soviet Union (1945); communist rule from 1948
Discontent among Sudeten German and Slovak minorities; attempts at rapprochement with Germany, the Munich agreement (1938) and German occupation (1938-39); liberation by the Soviet Union (1945); communist rule from 1948
Developments since 1948: the People's Republic (1948-60), collectivization of land and adjustments to the Soviet pattern; attempts at liberalization and reform ("Prague Spring") under Dube& (1968), invasion by five Warsaw Pact countries, return to orthodox communist rule and repression of political dissent; emergence of the dissident Charter 77 movement (1977); antigovernment demonstrations, resignation of communist government, election to presidency of dissident Vaclav Havel (1989); dissolution of Czechoslovak federation and creation of Czech and Slovak republics
Developments since 1948: the People's Republic (1948-60), collectivization of land and adjustments to the Soviet pattern; attempts at liberalization and reform ("Prague Spring") under Dube& (1968), invasion by five Warsaw Pact countries, return to orthodox communist rule and repression of political dissent; emergence of the dissident Charter 77 movement (1977); antigovernment demonstrations, resignation of communist government, election to presidency of dissident Vaclav Havel (1989); dissolution of Czechoslovak federation and creation of Czech and Slovak republics
Establishment of the Second Polish Republic (1918), the "Polish Corridor," Russo-Polish War of 1919-20, the Pilsudski regime, social and economic problems, German invasion and joint German-Soviet partition (1939), permanent loss of territory to the Soviet Union and annexation of German territory (1945)
Establishment of the Second Polish Republic (1918), the "Polish Corridor," Russo-Polish War of 1919-20, the Pilsudski regime, social and economic problems, German invasion and joint German-Soviet partition (1939), permanent loss of territory to the Soviet Union and annexation of German territory (1945)
Postwar developments under communist rule: conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, agricultural and industrial growth, the 1956 uprising, the Gomulka and Gierek governments, labour unrest and the formation of Solidarity, the Kania and Jaruzelski governments, imposition of martial law (1981-83) and suppression of Solidarity, relations with the Roman Catholic Church under John Paul II
Postwar developments under communist rule: conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, agricultural and industrial growth, the 1956 uprising, the Gomulka and Gierek governments, labour unrest and the formation of Solidarity, the Kania and Jaruzelski governments, imposition of martial law (1981-83) and suppression of Solidarity, relations with the Roman Catholic Church under John Paul II
Renewal of negotiations with Solidarity, political and economic reform and landslide victory of Solidarity candidate Lech Walesa (1989); defeat of Walesa (1995)
Renewal of negotiations with Solidarity, political and economic reform and landslide victory of Solidarity candidate Lech Walesa (1989); defeat of Walesa (1995)
The establishment (1918) of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania as independent states following the breakup of the Russian Empire; political and economic development in the interwar period; incorporation into the Soviet Union (1940); German occupation (1941-44); collectivization and industrialization in the postwar period; full independence (1991)
The establishment (1918) of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania as independent states following the breakup of the Russian Empire; political and economic development in the interwar period; incorporation into the Soviet Union (1940); German occupation (1941-44); collectivization and industrialization in the postwar period; full independence (1991)
The Balkans: Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania since c. 1920
The Balkans: Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania since c. 1920
Settlement of the borders of Balkan states (1919-26), continued dislocation of nationality groups, civil unrest, growth of peasant political parties and communism, land reform and industrialization, police repression and political instability
Settlement of the borders of Balkan states (1919-26), continued dislocation of nationality groups, civil unrest, growth of peasant political parties and communism, land reform and industrialization, police repression and political instability
Greece: civil war and the defeat of communist forces (1946-49), military dictatorship (1967-74), return to civilian rule and repudiation of the monarchy (1974), leftist government under Papandreou (1981-89), entry into the European Economic Community (1981), election of conservative government under Mitsotakis (1990), return of Papandreou (1993-96)
Greece: civil war and the defeat of communist forces (1946-49), military dictatorship (1967-74), return to civilian rule and repudiation of the monarchy (1974), leftist government under Papandreou (1981-89), entry into the European Economic Community (1981), election of conservative government under Mitsotakis (1990), return of Papandreou (1993-96)
Establishment of communist governments in Yugoslavia, Albania, Romania, and Bulgaria; Yugoslav break with the Soviet Union (1948), establishment of collective presidency after the death of Tito (1980); Albanian alignment with the Soviet Union (1948-61) and China (1961-78); independent Romanian foreign policy under Ceausescu's rule (1965-89); Bulgaria's firm affiance with the Soviet bloc; Yugoslavian unrest
Establishment of communist governments in Yugoslavia, Albania, Romania, and Bulgaria; Yugoslav break with the Soviet Union (1948), establishment of collective presidency after the death of Tito (1980); Albanian alignment with the Soviet Union (1948-61) and China (1961-78); independent Romanian foreign policy under Ceausescu's rule (1965-89); Bulgaria's firm affiance with the Soviet bloc; Yugoslavian unrest
Political changes since the late 1980s: political disintegration of Yugoslavia and emergence of separatist and ethnic conflicts in the region; popular revolt against Communist regime in Romania (1989); multiparty parliamentary elections in Romania (1990), Bulgaria (1990), and Albania (1992), escalation of hostilities among Serbs, Croats, and Bosnians and intervention of the UN and Western Allies
Political changes since the late 1980s: political disintegration of Yugoslavia and emergence of separatist and ethnic conflicts in the region; popular revolt against Communist regime in Romania (1989); multiparty parliamentary elections in Romania (1990), Bulgaria (1990), and Albania (1992), escalation of hostilities among Serbs, Croats, and Bosnians and intervention of the UN and Western Allies
The arts and intellectual life in Europe since 1920: increasing concern with the problems of alienation and despair, the importance of popular culture
The arts and intellectual life in Europe since 1920: increasing concern with the problems of alienation and despair, the importance of popular culture
Hoover's administration (1929-33) and the Great Depression: the stock market crash, domestic and international repercussions, Hoover's attempts to effect economic recovery
Hoover's administration (1929-33) and the Great Depression: the stock market crash, domestic and international repercussions, Hoover's attempts to effect economic recovery
The effects of the New Deal and World War II: the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-45)
The effects of the New Deal and World War II: the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-45)
Foreign policy between the World Wars: isolationism and neutrality, opposition to Japanese expansionism in Asia and economic sanctions against Japan, lend-lease aid to Britain (1940-41), the "Good Neighbor Policy" in Latin America
Foreign policy between the World Wars: isolationism and neutrality, opposition to Japanese expansionism in Asia and economic sanctions against Japan, lend-lease aid to Britain (1940-41), the "Good Neighbor Policy" in Latin America
The U.S. in World War II: wartime mobilization, regulation of production and manpower, the role of U.S. forces in defeating the Axis powers in Europe and the Pacific, U.S. military occupation of Japan and participation with the Allies in occupation of Germany
The U.S. in World War II: wartime mobilization, regulation of production and manpower, the role of U.S. forces in defeating the Axis powers in Europe and the Pacific, U.S. military occupation of Japan and participation with the Allies in occupation of Germany
The beginning of the Cold War: the U.S. from the end of World War II to 1961
The beginning of the Cold War: the U.S. from the end of World War II to 1961
Foreign policy aimed at the containment of Communism: the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, the Point Four Program, the creation of NATO, U.S. support of Nationalist China
Foreign policy aimed at the containment of Communism: the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, the Point Four Program, the creation of NATO, U.S. support of Nationalist China
Programs of the Fair Deal: the conversion to a peacetime economy, labour disputes and inflation, the Taft-Hartley Act (1947), social and economic legislation
Programs of the Fair Deal: the conversion to a peacetime economy, labour disputes and inflation, the Taft-Hartley Act (1947), social and economic legislation
Foreign policy during the Eisenhower years: sponsorship of military coups in Iran (1953) and Guatemala (1954), the Suez crisis (1956), U.S. entry into the space race (1958), intervention in Lebanon (1958), continued support of Nationalist China, the U-2 affair
Foreign policy during the Eisenhower years: sponsorship of military coups in Iran (1953) and Guatemala (1954), the Suez crisis (1956), U.S. entry into the space race (1958), intervention in Lebanon (1958), continued support of Nationalist China, the U-2 affair
Social and economic problems: recessions (1953-54 and 1957-58), growing racial unrest, unemployment, labour strikes and the Landrum-Griffin Act (1959)
Social and economic problems: recessions (1953-54 and 1957-58), growing racial unrest, unemployment, labour strikes and the Landrum-Griffin Act (1959)
The U.S. in the late 20th century: continuation of East-West hostilities, detente, the end of the Cold War
The U.S. in the late 20th century: continuation of East-West hostilities, detente, the end of the Cold War
The Kennedy administration (1961-63): the Cuban missile crisis (1962), the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (1963), military aid to South Vietnam, the assassination of John F. Kennedy
The Kennedy administration (1961-63): the Cuban missile crisis (1962), the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (1963), military aid to South Vietnam, the assassination of John F. Kennedy
Increasing alienation among the youth and minority groups: protests in cities and on campuses, the assassinations of Robert F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr. (1968), the anti-Vietnam War movement
Increasing alienation among the youth and minority groups: protests in cities and on campuses, the assassinations of Robert F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr. (1968), the anti-Vietnam War movement
Foreign policy: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) and subsequent expansion of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, invasion of the Dominican Republic (196566), commencement of Paris peace talks (1968), military and economic aid to Middle Eastern and Latin-American countries
Foreign policy: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) and subsequent expansion of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, invasion of the Dominican Republic (196566), commencement of Paris peace talks (1968), military and economic aid to Middle Eastern and Latin-American countries
Foreign policy: the continuing Vietnam War and the Paris peace talks, the invasion of Cambodia (1970), rapprochement with the People's Republic of China, Vietnam War cease-fire agreement (1973)
Foreign policy: the continuing Vietnam War and the Paris peace talks, the invasion of Cambodia (1970), rapprochement with the People's Republic of China, Vietnam War cease-fire agreement (1973)
The Ford administration (1974-77): presidential pardon of Nixon (1974), détente with the Soviet Union, conclusion of the Vietnam War (1975), continuing Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), celebration of the bicentennial of the Declaration of Independence (1976)
The Ford administration (1974-77): presidential pardon of Nixon (1974), détente with the Soviet Union, conclusion of the Vietnam War (1975), continuing Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), celebration of the bicentennial of the Declaration of Independence (1976)
The Carter administration (1977-81): foreign policy emphasis on human rights, Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel (1978), Panama Canal treaties (1977), Iranian hostage crisis; attempts to alleviate the energy crisis and to reform electoral, welfare, and Social Security bureaucracies; poor relations between president and Congress
The Carter administration (1977-81): foreign policy emphasis on human rights, Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel (1978), Panama Canal treaties (1977), Iranian hostage crisis; attempts to alleviate the energy crisis and to reform electoral, welfare, and Social Security bureaucracies; poor relations between president and Congress
Increased military spending, cuts in social welfare programs, reduction and simplification of personal income tax rates, rapid growth of federal deficit, Supreme Court shift to the right, Iran-Contra Affair
Increased military spending, cuts in social welfare programs, reduction and simplification of personal income tax rates, rapid growth of federal deficit, Supreme Court shift to the right, Iran-Contra Affair
Anticommunist foreign policy stance, sponsorship of Contra insurgency in Nicaragua and support for government forces in Salvadoran civil war from 1981, invasion of Grenada (1983), initial decline in U.S.-Soviet relations and improvement during Gorbachev era from 1985
Anticommunist foreign policy stance, sponsorship of Contra insurgency in Nicaragua and support for government forces in Salvadoran civil war from 1981, invasion of Grenada (1983), initial decline in U.S.-Soviet relations and improvement during Gorbachev era from 1985
The Bush administration (1989-93): continuation of conservative economic policies, the "war on drugs," savings and loan institutions crisis, invasion of Panama (1989), Persian Gulf War (1991), economic recession
The Bush administration (1989-93): continuation of conservative economic policies, the "war on drugs," savings and loan institutions crisis, invasion of Panama (1989), Persian Gulf War (1991), economic recession
The Great Depression and relief measures of the Conservative government (1930-35): return of Liberal government (1935); foreign trade, welfare legislation, financial reforms, minor political parties
The Great Depression and relief measures of the Conservative government (1930-35): return of Liberal government (1935); foreign trade, welfare legislation, financial reforms, minor political parties
Postwar foreign policy: North American continentalism and collective security: participation in NATO, the UN, and the Korean War; leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts; U.S.-Canadian economic relations and free-trade agreement
Postwar foreign policy: North American continentalism and collective security: participation in NATO, the UN, and the Korean War; leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts; U.S.-Canadian economic relations and free-trade agreement
Internal politics since 1945: Liberal Party control (1945-57), the Progressive Conservative coalition (1957-63), Liberal government after 1963 and the Trudeau years (1968-79, 1980-84), patriation of Canada's constitution (1982), election of Progressive Conservative government and the Mulroney administration (1984-93), return of Liberals to power under Jean Chretien (1993)
Internal politics since 1945: Liberal Party control (1945-57), the Progressive Conservative coalition (1957-63), Liberal government after 1963 and the Trudeau years (1968-79, 1980-84), patriation of Canada's constitution (1982), election of Progressive Conservative government and the Mulroney administration (1984-93), return of Liberals to power under Jean Chretien (1993)
Latin-American and Caribbean Nations Since c. 1920
Latin-American and Caribbean Nations Since c. 1920
ObregOn's coup and Carranza's execution (1920), reforms during the regimes of ObregOn (1920-24) and Calles (1924-28), rule by Calles' National Revolutionary Party (1928-34)
ObregOn's coup and Carranza's execution (1920), reforms during the regimes of ObregOn (1920-24) and Calles (1924-28), rule by Calles' National Revolutionary Party (1928-34)
Cardenas' Six-Year Plan (1934-40): social and economic reforms, reorganization of the National Revolutionary Party, expropriation of foreign petroleum industry (1938), election of Avila Camacho (1940)
Cardenas' Six-Year Plan (1934-40): social and economic reforms, reorganization of the National Revolutionary Party, expropriation of foreign petroleum industry (1938), election of Avila Camacho (1940)
Political, economic, and social developments: dominance of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI); woman suffrage (1958); industrialization and urbanization; emergence as a major oil and gas producer; oil boom of the 1970s and debt crisis of the early 1980s; economic crises and reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s; revolt of the Zapatista National Liberation Army in Chiapas state, assassination of PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio and election of Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon (1994), currency devaluation (1995) and severe recession, economic recovery
Political, economic, and social developments: dominance of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI); woman suffrage (1958); industrialization and urbanization; emergence as a major oil and gas producer; oil boom of the 1970s and debt crisis of the early 1980s; economic crises and reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s; revolt of the Zapatista National Liberation Army in Chiapas state, assassination of PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio and election of Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon (1994), currency devaluation (1995) and severe recession, economic recovery
Relations with the U.S. and other countries: tensions over illegal immigration to the U.S., influx of Central American refugees and efforts at peacemaking in the region, foreign trade and the North American Free Trade Agreement (1992)
Relations with the U.S. and other countries: tensions over illegal immigration to the U.S., influx of Central American refugees and efforts at peacemaking in the region, foreign trade and the North American Free Trade Agreement (1992)
Land-redistribution schemes of the Arbenz regime (1951-54) and expropriation of United Fruit Company holdings (1952), U.S.-sponsored military coup (1954), cancellation of land reform and suppression of labor and peasant unions under Castillo Armas (1954-57), succession of military-dominated governments, growth of rural guerrilla insurgencies from 1962, civilian administration of Mendez Montenegro (1966-70), increased repression under Arana Osorio (1970-74)
Land-redistribution schemes of the Arbenz regime (1951-54) and expropriation of United Fruit Company holdings (1952), U.S.-sponsored military coup (1954), cancellation of land reform and suppression of labor and peasant unions under Castillo Armas (1954-57), succession of military-dominated governments, growth of rural guerrilla insurgencies from 1962, civilian administration of Mendez Montenegro (1966-70), increased repression under Arana Osorio (1970-74)
Formation of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (UNRG; 1981) and increased guerrilla activity; large-scale "scorched-earth" counterinsurgency campaigns under Lucas Garcia (1978-81), Rios Montt (1982-83), and Mejia Victores (198385); return of civilian government under Cerezo Arevalo (1986); intermittent government-UNRG peace negotiations from 1987 and peace accord (1996); constitutional reforms (1993-94)
Formation of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (UNRG; 1981) and increased guerrilla activity; large-scale "scorched-earth" counterinsurgency campaigns under Lucas Garcia (1978-81), Rios Montt (1982-83), and Mejia Victores (198385); return of civilian government under Cerezo Arevalo (1986); intermittent government-UNRG peace negotiations from 1987 and peace accord (1996); constitutional reforms (1993-94)
Honduras since 1920: political unrest in the 1920s; Carias Andino's dictatorship (193249); administrations of Galvez (1949-54), Lozano Diaz (1954-56), Villeda Morales (195763), and successive military governments; return to civilian rule in 1982; involvement in regional conflicts
Honduras since 1920: political unrest in the 1920s; Carias Andino's dictatorship (193249); administrations of Galvez (1949-54), Lozano Diaz (1954-56), Villeda Morales (195763), and successive military governments; return to civilian rule in 1982; involvement in regional conflicts
El Salvador since 1920: military dictatorships to 1944, interim governments (1945-48), junta rule and PRUD domination (1948-60), continued military government thereafter, civil war from the 1970s and U.S. involvement, civilian presidency of Duarte (1984-89) and election of Cristiani (1989), accord (1992) ending long period of guerrilla warfare
El Salvador since 1920: military dictatorships to 1944, interim governments (1945-48), junta rule and PRUD domination (1948-60), continued military government thereafter, civil war from the 1970s and U.S. involvement, civilian presidency of Duarte (1984-89) and election of Cristiani (1989), accord (1992) ending long period of guerrilla warfare
Nicaragua since 1920: continued U.S. military intervention until 1933, Sacasa's regime (1933-36), Somoza family's dominance (1937-79), popular uprising and Sandinista rule (1979-90), U.S. sponsorship of Contra insurgency (1980s), presidential elections of Sandinista leader Ortega (1984) and opposition leader Chamorro (1990)
Nicaragua since 1920: continued U.S. military intervention until 1933, Sacasa's regime (1933-36), Somoza family's dominance (1937-79), popular uprising and Sandinista rule (1979-90), U.S. sponsorship of Contra insurgency (1980s), presidential elections of Sandinista leader Ortega (1984) and opposition leader Chamorro (1990)
Costa Rica since 1920: border disputes with Panama until 1941, orderly presidential succession, industrialization and urbanization, economic problems of the early 1980s, regional peace efforts of Arias Sanchez (1986-90)
Costa Rica since 1920: border disputes with Panama until 1941, orderly presidential succession, industrialization and urbanization, economic problems of the early 1980s, regional peace efforts of Arias Sanchez (1986-90)
Panama since 1920: unstable local politics and U.S. intervention, economic development, National Guard rule under Omar Torrijos (1968-78), the Panama Canal treaties with the U.S. (1977), U.S. invasion of Panama and overthrow and arrest of de facto ruler Noriega
Panama since 1920: unstable local politics and U.S. intervention, economic development, National Guard rule under Omar Torrijos (1968-78), the Panama Canal treaties with the U.S. (1977), U.S. invasion of Panama and overthrow and arrest of de facto ruler Noriega
The island states of the Caribbean since the end of U.S. occupation
The island states of the Caribbean since the end of U.S. occupation
Haiti since 1934: internal struggle for power (1934-57); dictatorial presidency of Francois Duvalier (1957-71) and political terror of the Tontons Macoutes, succession by Duvalier's son, Jean-Claude (1971), popular unrest and exile of Jean-Claude (1986); successive military governments and continued repression; election of Jean-Bertrand Aristide in 1990 and military coup (1991); occupation by U.S. troops and restoration of civilian government (1994)
Haiti since 1934: internal struggle for power (1934-57); dictatorial presidency of Francois Duvalier (1957-71) and political terror of the Tontons Macoutes, succession by Duvalier's son, Jean-Claude (1971), popular unrest and exile of Jean-Claude (1986); successive military governments and continued repression; election of Jean-Bertrand Aristide in 1990 and military coup (1991); occupation by U.S. troops and restoration of civilian government (1994)
Dominican Republic since 1930: Trujillo's dictatorship (1930-61) and assassination (1961), reformist government of Bosch and military coup (1963), popular revolution and U.S. military intervention (1965-66), conservative regimes of Balaguer (1966-78), cautious reforms under Guzman Fernandez (1978-82) and Jorge Blanco (1982-86), Balaguer's return (1986-94) and disputed reelection (1994)
Dominican Republic since 1930: Trujillo's dictatorship (1930-61) and assassination (1961), reformist government of Bosch and military coup (1963), popular revolution and U.S. military intervention (1965-66), conservative regimes of Balaguer (1966-78), cautious reforms under Guzman Fernandez (1978-82) and Jorge Blanco (1982-86), Balaguer's return (1986-94) and disputed reelection (1994)
Fulgencio Batista's dictatorships (1933-44; 1952-59), growth of the military and middle classes, foreign control of the economy and widespread rural poverty
Fulgencio Batista's dictatorships (1933-44; 1952-59), growth of the military and middle classes, foreign control of the economy and widespread rural poverty
Cuba under Castro: nationalization of foreign-owned property, alignment with the Soviet bloc, attempts to foment revolution in other Latin-American states in the 1960s, improvements in education and medical care, extensive civilian foreign-assistance missions, military involvement in Africa and renewed support of leftist movements in Central America, collapse of the Soviet bloc and ensuing political isolation and economic hardship
Cuba under Castro: nationalization of foreign-owned property, alignment with the Soviet bloc, attempts to foment revolution in other Latin-American states in the 1960s, improvements in education and medical care, extensive civilian foreign-assistance missions, military involvement in Africa and renewed support of leftist movements in Central America, collapse of the Soviet bloc and ensuing political isolation and economic hardship
Relations with the U.S.: nationalization of U.S.-owned property and U.S. trade embargo from 1960, emigration of Cubans to the U.S., the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), the Cuban missile crisis (1962), second wave of emigration at Mariel (1981), confrontation with U.S. troops at Grenada (1983), broadcasts of Radio Marti from 1985, tightening of trade embargo (1992) and third wave of emigration (1994)
Relations with the U.S.: nationalization of U.S.-owned property and U.S. trade embargo from 1960, emigration of Cubans to the U.S., the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), the Cuban missile crisis (1962), second wave of emigration at Mariel (1981), confrontation with U.S. troops at Grenada (1983), broadcasts of Radio Marti from 1985, tightening of trade embargo (1992) and third wave of emigration (1994)
The new nations of the Caribbean region: Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Christopher and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago; efforts toward development and regional cooperation; U.S. involvement in the region; U.S. invasion of Grenada (1983)
The new nations of the Caribbean region: Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Christopher and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago; efforts toward development and regional cooperation; U.S. involvement in the region; U.S. invasion of Grenada (1983)
U.S. and European territories and possessions in the Caribbean region: Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Bermuda and other British insular possessions, French Guiana and French insular possessions, Netherlands Antilles
U.S. and European territories and possessions in the Caribbean region: Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Bermuda and other British insular possessions, French Guiana and French insular possessions, Netherlands Antilles
Abortive attempts at democratic government amid renewed military dictatorships (1935-58), inception of civilian rule, economic reforms of the Democratic Action (AD) party, political stabilization and economic development under governments of the AD and the Social Christian Party (COPEI) in the 1960s
Abortive attempts at democratic government amid renewed military dictatorships (1935-58), inception of civilian rule, economic reforms of the Democratic Action (AD) party, political stabilization and economic development under governments of the AD and the Social Christian Party (COPEI) in the 1960s
Oil-based economic boom in the 1970s, nationalization of the oil industry (1976), declining oil revenues and economic stagnation and foreign-debt crises from the late 1970s, efforts at industrial diversification and austerity measures provoking civil unrest, election of National Convergence (CN) candidate Caldera Rodriguez (1993), continued economic difficulties
Oil-based economic boom in the 1970s, nationalization of the oil industry (1976), declining oil revenues and economic stagnation and foreign-debt crises from the late 1970s, efforts at industrial diversification and austerity measures provoking civil unrest, election of National Convergence (CN) candidate Caldera Rodriguez (1993), continued economic difficulties
Reemergence of Conservative rule under Ospina Perez (1946-50), La Violencia era of widespread civil unrest and political violence (1948-62), military dictatorship of Rojas Pinilla (1953-57), formation of National Front coalition of Conservatives and Liberals (1957)
Reemergence of Conservative rule under Ospina Perez (1946-50), La Violencia era of widespread civil unrest and political violence (1948-62), military dictatorship of Rojas Pinilla (1953-57), formation of National Front coalition of Conservatives and Liberals (1957)
Uneven economic development under Lleras Restrepo (1966-70) and Pastrana Borrero (1970-74), dissolution of the National Front (1974), increasing political violence by left-wing guerrillas and the military's "dirty war" from the late 1970s, growth of drug trafficking and associated corruption, Conservative administration of Betancur Cuartas (1982-86), short-lived peace agreements with guerrilla groups amid continued violence (1980s and early 1990s), increasing drug-related terrorism and government efforts to subdue drug cartels
Uneven economic development under Lleras Restrepo (1966-70) and Pastrana Borrero (1970-74), dissolution of the National Front (1974), increasing political violence by left-wing guerrillas and the military's "dirty war" from the late 1970s, growth of drug trafficking and associated corruption, Conservative administration of Betancur Cuartas (1982-86), short-lived peace agreements with guerrilla groups amid continued violence (1980s and early 1990s), increasing drug-related terrorism and government efforts to subdue drug cartels
Various administrations of Velasco Ibarra and other presidents and military coups after 1945, constitution of 1979 and return to civilian rule, economic and social effects of the exploitation of petroleum after 1972
Various administrations of Velasco Ibarra and other presidents and military coups after 1945, constitution of 1979 and return to civilian rule, economic and social effects of the exploitation of petroleum after 1972
The overthrow of Leguia (1930); Sanchez Cerro's administration (1931-33); the Aprista uprising and Sanchez Cerro's assassination; Benavides' administration (1933-39), social reforms, and the outlawing of the Apristas
The overthrow of Leguia (1930); Sanchez Cerro's administration (1931-33); the Aprista uprising and Sanchez Cerro's assassination; Benavides' administration (1933-39), social reforms, and the outlawing of the Apristas
Prado's first administration (1939-45); wartime cooperation with the U.S. and economic prosperity, legalization and re-outlawing of the Apristas during Bustamante's administration (1945-48), Odria's military dictatorship (1948-56) and suppression of Apristas
Prado's first administration (1939-45); wartime cooperation with the U.S. and economic prosperity, legalization and re-outlawing of the Apristas during Bustamante's administration (1945-48), Odria's military dictatorship (1948-56) and suppression of Apristas
Re-legalization of Apristas and economic prosperity during Prado's second term (1956-62), military seizure of power (1962), social reforms of Belafinde Terry's administration (1963-68), military takeover in 1968, restoration of civilian rule (1980) and return of Belatinde as president, economic difficulties of the early 1980s, rise of Sendero Luminoso guerrillas, left-of-centre government under Garcia Perez (1985-90), election (1990) and reelection (1995) of Fujimori
Re-legalization of Apristas and economic prosperity during Prado's second term (1956-62), military seizure of power (1962), social reforms of Belafinde Terry's administration (1963-68), military takeover in 1968, restoration of civilian rule (1980) and return of Belatinde as president, economic difficulties of the early 1980s, rise of Sendero Luminoso guerrillas, left-of-centre government under Garcia Perez (1985-90), election (1990) and reelection (1995) of Fujimori
The revolt of 1930, Salamanca's presidency (1930-36), the effect of the Great Depression on the mining industry, the Chaco War (1932-35) and loss of territory to Paraguay
The revolt of 1930, Salamanca's presidency (1930-36), the effect of the Great Depression on the mining industry, the Chaco War (1932-35) and loss of territory to Paraguay
Military coup (1936), rise of MNR and PIR political parties, 1943 military coup and the Villaroel dictatorship (1943-46), political instability to 1951, military junta (1951-52)
Military coup (1936), rise of MNR and PIR political parties, 1943 military coup and the Villaroel dictatorship (1943-46), political instability to 1951, military junta (1951-52)
The Bolivian National Revolution (1952), nationalization of the tin industry, electoral and land reforms, Paz Estenssoro's administrations (1952-56 and 1960-64), U.S. economic aid, civil disorders, alternating military and civilian governments in the 1960s and 1970s, return to civilian rule under Siles Zuazo (1982), foreign debt and other economic problems, effects of drug trafficking, return of Paz Estenssoro as president (1985-89), relative political stability in the late 1980s and early 1990s, civil unrest in the mid-1990s
The Bolivian National Revolution (1952), nationalization of the tin industry, electoral and land reforms, Paz Estenssoro's administrations (1952-56 and 1960-64), U.S. economic aid, civil disorders, alternating military and civilian governments in the 1960s and 1970s, return to civilian rule under Siles Zuazo (1982), foreign debt and other economic problems, effects of drug trafficking, return of Paz Estenssoro as president (1985-89), relative political stability in the late 1980s and early 1990s, civil unrest in the mid-1990s
The presidency of Alessandri Palma (1920-24, 1925), military coup (1924), return to civilian rule (1925), constitution of 1925, political instability, military dictatorship under Ibanez del Campo (1927-31)
The presidency of Alessandri Palma (1920-24, 1925), military coup (1924), return to civilian rule (1925), constitution of 1925, political instability, military dictatorship under Ibanez del Campo (1927-31)
Economic crises during the 1930s: brief return to civilian rule under Montero Rodriguez, military coup and 100-day rule of Socialist Republic, Alessandri Palma's second administration (1932-38)
Economic crises during the 1930s: brief return to civilian rule under Montero Rodriguez, military coup and 100-day rule of Socialist Republic, Alessandri Palma's second administration (1932-38)
Ibanez del Campo's administration (1952-58) and strong presidential leadership, administration of Alessandri Rodriguez (1958-64), social and economic problems, proliferation of leftist political parties and realignment of conservative parties
Ibanez del Campo's administration (1952-58) and strong presidential leadership, administration of Alessandri Rodriguez (1958-64), social and economic problems, proliferation of leftist political parties and realignment of conservative parties
Frei's administration (1964-70) and nationalization of the economy, Allende's Marxist administration (1970-73), military coup (1973) and military rule under Pinochet (1973-90), political repression, continued economic difficulties, presidential election of Aylwin (1990)
Frei's administration (1964-70) and nationalization of the economy, Allende's Marxist administration (1970-73), military coup (1973) and military rule under Pinochet (1973-90), political repression, continued economic difficulties, presidential election of Aylwin (1990)
Argentina since 1955: attempts to restore constitutionalism, military dictatorships, civil wars and Peronista resurgence, return (1973) and death (1974) of Perim, military coup (1976), excesses and economic failures of military rule, invasion of the Falkland Islands and defeat by Britain (1982), return to civilian rule under Alfonsin (1983), foreign-debt problems, election (1989) and reelection (1995) of Peronist Carlos Saul Menem
Argentina since 1955: attempts to restore constitutionalism, military dictatorships, civil wars and Peronista resurgence, return (1973) and death (1974) of Perim, military coup (1976), excesses and economic failures of military rule, invasion of the Falkland Islands and defeat by Britain (1982), return to civilian rule under Alfonsin (1983), foreign-debt problems, election (1989) and reelection (1995) of Peronist Carlos Saul Menem
The Great Depression, dictatorship of Gabriel Terra (1933-38), election of Alfredo Baldomir (1938), Uruguayan neutrality in World War II, economic boom and political reforms
The Great Depression, dictatorship of Gabriel Terra (1933-38), election of Alfredo Baldomir (1938), Uruguayan neutrality in World War II, economic boom and political reforms
Post-World War II developments: the constitution of 1951 and the plural executive, recession (1954-58), 1958 election of Nationalists (Blancos), return of Colorado Party and return to presidential system (1966), Tupamaro guerrilla insurgency, dismissal of Congress (1973) and assumption of effective control by the military, severe recession of the early 1980s, restoration of civilian government (1985) and amnesty for the military
Post-World War II developments: the constitution of 1951 and the plural executive, recession (1954-58), 1958 election of Nationalists (Blancos), return of Colorado Party and return to presidential system (1966), Tupamaro guerrilla insurgency, dismissal of Congress (1973) and assumption of effective control by the military, severe recession of the early 1980s, restoration of civilian government (1985) and amnesty for the military
Political instability and economic retardation: Stroessner's dictatorship from 1954 to his overthrow in 1989, democratic reforms and new constitution of 1992
Political instability and economic retardation: Stroessner's dictatorship from 1954 to his overthrow in 1989, democratic reforms and new constitution of 1992
The Getfilio Vargas dictatorship (1930-45): the revolution of 1930, the constitutions of 1934 and 1937, Vargas' consolidation of power (1937), social and economic legislation, Allied participation in World War II, Vargas' forced resignation (1945)
The Getfilio Vargas dictatorship (1930-45): the revolution of 1930, the constitutions of 1934 and 1937, Vargas' consolidation of power (1937), social and economic legislation, Allied participation in World War II, Vargas' forced resignation (1945)
Political, social, and economic developments in Brazil since 1945
Political, social, and economic developments in Brazil since 1945
Election of Eurico Gaspar Dutra (1945) and the constitution of 1946, reelection of Vargas (1950), Vargas' forced resignation and suicide (1954), economic development and inflation in the 1950s
Election of Eurico Gaspar Dutra (1945) and the constitution of 1946, reelection of Vargas (1950), Vargas' forced resignation and suicide (1954), economic development and inflation in the 1950s
Election of Janio Quadros as president (1960), Quadros' resignation (1961), parliamentary experiment and figurehead presidency of Joao Goulart (1961-63), 1963 plebiscite giving Goulart full presidential powers, social and economic unrest and nationalization of oil refineries, revolution and exile of Goulart and the beginning of military rule (1964)
Election of Janio Quadros as president (1960), Quadros' resignation (1961), parliamentary experiment and figurehead presidency of Joao Goulart (1961-63), 1963 plebiscite giving Goulart full presidential powers, social and economic unrest and nationalization of oil refineries, revolution and exile of Goulart and the beginning of military rule (1964)
Presidency of Castelo Branco (1964-67): legislative restrictions on civil liberties and political rights, suspension of existing political parties and creation of artificial two-party system, enhancement of executive power, the constitution of 1967
Presidency of Castelo Branco (1964-67): legislative restrictions on civil liberties and political rights, suspension of existing political parties and creation of artificial two-party system, enhancement of executive power, the constitution of 1967
Presidencies of Costa e Silva, Medici, Geisel, and Figueiredo after 1967: continued repression amid increasing opposition to military rule, end of artificial two-party system and formation of new parties (1979), gains by opposition parties in 1982 elections, inflation and foreign-debt problems from the early 1980s
Presidencies of Costa e Silva, Medici, Geisel, and Figueiredo after 1967: continued repression amid increasing opposition to military rule, end of artificial two-party system and formation of new parties (1979), gains by opposition parties in 1982 elections, inflation and foreign-debt problems from the early 1980s
Return to civilian rule with presidency of Jose Sarney (1985-90), liberalized constitution of 1988, presidential election of Collor de Mello (1989), Collor's impeachment and resignation (1992), presidential election of Cardoso (1994)
Return to civilian rule with presidency of Jose Sarney (1985-90), liberalized constitution of 1988, presidential election of Collor de Mello (1989), Collor's impeachment and resignation (1992), presidential election of Cardoso (1994)
East Asia: China in Revolution, the Era of Japanese Hegemony, and the Influence of the United States in the 20th Century
East Asia: China in Revolution, the Era of Japanese Hegemony, and the Influence of the United States in the 20th Century
The Northern Expedition: peasant uprisings leading to the expulsion of the Communists from the Kuomintang, Communist movement into the hills and plains of central China
The Northern Expedition: peasant uprisings leading to the expulsion of the Communists from the Kuomintang, Communist movement into the hills and plains of central China
International alliance against Japan: U.S. military aid, internal conflicts, the crisis of 1944 and Nationalist deterioration, Communist growth and international efforts to prevent civil war
International alliance against Japan: U.S. military aid, internal conflicts, the crisis of 1944 and Nationalist deterioration, Communist growth and international efforts to prevent civil war
International relations: UN representation (1971), rapprochement with the U.S. and Japan (1972), friction with the Soviet Union, U.S. diplomatic relations with China (1979), increased cultural and economic contacts overseas, Hong Kong agreement with Great Britain (1984), trade and human-rights disputes with the U.S. in the 1990s
International relations: UN representation (1971), rapprochement with the U.S. and Japan (1972), friction with the Soviet Union, U.S. diplomatic relations with China (1979), increased cultural and economic contacts overseas, Hong Kong agreement with Great Britain (1984), trade and human-rights disputes with the U.S. in the 1990s
Internal affairs: factional struggles of the early 1970s, deaths of Zhou Enlai (January 1976) and Mao Zedong (September 1976), ascendancy of Deng Xiaoping and purge of Maoist Gang of Four, new party and national constitutions (1982), changes in economic structure and introduction of economic incentives, forcible repression of pro-democracy movement (1989), social changes resulting from rapid economic growth, death of Deng and restoration of Chinese rule in Hong Kong (1997)
Internal affairs: factional struggles of the early 1970s, deaths of Zhou Enlai (January 1976) and Mao Zedong (September 1976), ascendancy of Deng Xiaoping and purge of Maoist Gang of Four, new party and national constitutions (1982), changes in economic structure and introduction of economic incentives, forcible repression of pro-democracy movement (1989), social changes resulting from rapid economic growth, death of Deng and restoration of Chinese rule in Hong Kong (1997)
The Nationalist government in Taiwan since 1949: initial repression and consolidation; leadership of Chiang Kai-shek until his death; alliance with the U.S. and economic growth; loss of UN representation (1971); Taiwanese separatism; loss of diplomatic support from most nations, including U.S. (1979); end of martial law (1987) and gradual democratization
The Nationalist government in Taiwan since 1949: initial repression and consolidation; leadership of Chiang Kai-shek until his death; alliance with the U.S. and economic growth; loss of UN representation (1971); Taiwanese separatism; loss of diplomatic support from most nations, including U.S. (1979); end of martial law (1987) and gradual democratization
The rise of the militarists, growth of antigovernment sentiment, the seizure of initiative in foreign policy by the military, the outbreak of war with China (1937), Axis leanings
The rise of the militarists, growth of antigovernment sentiment, the seizure of initiative in foreign policy by the military, the outbreak of war with China (1937), Axis leanings
Japan's proclamation of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere (1938), official alignment with the Axis Powers (1940), and deterioration of relations with the other Western powers: Miffs cabinet and outbreak of war with the U.S. (1941)
Japan's proclamation of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere (1938), official alignment with the Axis Powers (1940), and deterioration of relations with the other Western powers: Miffs cabinet and outbreak of war with the U.S. (1941)
Initial Japanese successes in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, the Allied counterattack culminating in the fire and atomic bombing of Japanese cities, Japan's unconditional surrender (1945)
Initial Japanese successes in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, the Allied counterattack culminating in the fire and atomic bombing of Japanese cities, Japan's unconditional surrender (1945)
Japan under U.S. military occupation (1945-52): democratization of Japanese society; constitutional, land, and labour reforms; increased rights for women
Japan under U.S. military occupation (1945-52): democratization of Japanese society; constitutional, land, and labour reforms; increased rights for women
International relations and politics; loss of Korea and other territories, relations with China and the U.S., radical political movements in the 1960s, politics of moderation
International relations and politics; loss of Korea and other territories, relations with China and the U.S., radical political movements in the 1960s, politics of moderation
Restoration of Japanese independence (1952): great economic growth, admission to the UN (1956), return of the Bonins and Ryukyus, Japan as a major world trader, economic tensions with U.S. and the European Community, rapprochement with China (1978), overtures toward Southeast Asia and Korea, long dominance of Liberal-Democratic Party and intra-party factionalism, government-corruption scandals, coalition governments since 1993
Restoration of Japanese independence (1952): great economic growth, admission to the UN (1956), return of the Bonins and Ryukyus, Japan as a major world trader, economic tensions with U.S. and the European Community, rapprochement with China (1978), overtures toward Southeast Asia and Korea, long dominance of Liberal-Democratic Party and intra-party factionalism, government-corruption scandals, coalition governments since 1993
Japanese rule (1910-45): military control, the March 1st independence movement and formation of a provisional Korean government in exile (1919), resistance movements and the end of Japanese rule
Japanese rule (1910-45): military control, the March 1st independence movement and formation of a provisional Korean government in exile (1919), resistance movements and the end of Japanese rule
South Korea since the armistice: the regimes of Syngman Rhee (1948-60) and Park Chung Hee (1961-79), the assassination of Park and military coup (1979), the Kwangju uprising and its violent suppression (1980), the regime of Chun Doo Hwan (1980-88), economic growth and development, constitutional reforms and direct presidential elections of Roe Tae Woo (1987) and Kim Young Sam (1992)
South Korea since the armistice: the regimes of Syngman Rhee (1948-60) and Park Chung Hee (1961-79), the assassination of Park and military coup (1979), the Kwangju uprising and its violent suppression (1980), the regime of Chun Doo Hwan (1980-88), economic growth and development, constitutional reforms and direct presidential elections of Roe Tae Woo (1987) and Kim Young Sam (1992)
North Korea since the armistice: consolidation of Communist government power under Kim Il-sung, relations with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, military and industrial growth, death of Kim Il-sung (1994)
North Korea since the armistice: consolidation of Communist government power under Kim Il-sung, relations with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, military and industrial growth, death of Kim Il-sung (1994)
South and Southeast Asia: the Late Colonial Period and the Emergence of New Nations Since 1920
South and Southeast Asia: the Late Colonial Period and the Emergence of New Nations Since 1920
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Nepal since 1920
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Nepal since 1920
Intensified agitation for Indian independence and Gandhi's satyagraha movement of nonviolent resistance; Round Table Conference (1930-32), British offers of constitutional reform, the Government of India Act (1935)
Intensified agitation for Indian independence and Gandhi's satyagraha movement of nonviolent resistance; Round Table Conference (1930-32), British offers of constitutional reform, the Government of India Act (1935)
Increased strength of the Muslim League, movement for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan), the political and economic effects of World War II, partition and independence (1947)
Increased strength of the Muslim League, movement for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan), the political and economic effects of World War II, partition and independence (1947)
Domestic affairs: establishment of a parliamentary system and reorganization of the states P. Singh (1989-90), and Chandra Shekhar (1990-91); assassination of Rajiv Gandhi (1991); election of P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991)
Domestic affairs: establishment of a parliamentary system and reorganization of the states P. Singh (1989-90), and Chandra Shekhar (1990-91); assassination of Rajiv Gandhi (1991); election of P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991)
Foreign policy: Nehru's policy of nonalignment, conflicts with Pakistan over Kashmir (1947-49 and 1965-66) and over East Pakistan (Bangladesh) in 1971, border conflict with China and Chinese incursion (1962), Indian peace-keeping troops in Sri Lanka (1987-1990)
Foreign policy: Nehru's policy of nonalignment, conflicts with Pakistan over Kashmir (1947-49 and 1965-66) and over East Pakistan (Bangladesh) in 1971, border conflict with China and Chinese incursion (1962), Indian peace-keeping troops in Sri Lanka (1987-1990)
Military government of Ayub Khan (1958-69); economic and political reforms; border conflict with India; administration of Yahya Khan (1969-71); civil war between East and West Pakistan, secession of East Pakistan (since 1971, Bangladesh); administrations of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971-77), Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq (1977-88), Benazir Bhutto (1988- 90,1993-96), and Nawaz Sharif (1990-93, 1997- )
Military government of Ayub Khan (1958-69); economic and political reforms; border conflict with India; administration of Yahya Khan (1969-71); civil war between East and West Pakistan, secession of East Pakistan (since 1971, Bangladesh); administrations of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971-77), Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq (1977-88), Benazir Bhutto (1988- 90,1993-96), and Nawaz Sharif (1990-93, 1997- )
Bangladesh since 1971: emergence of nation, government of Mujibur Rahman (1972-75), adoption of presidential form of government (1975), martial-law administrations of Zia ur-Rahman (1975-81) and Hossain Mohammad Ershad (1982-90), election of Begum Khaleda Zia ur-Rahman as prime minister and return to parliamentary system (1991)
Bangladesh since 1971: emergence of nation, government of Mujibur Rahman (1972-75), adoption of presidential form of government (1975), martial-law administrations of Zia ur-Rahman (1975-81) and Hossain Mohammad Ershad (1982-90), election of Begum Khaleda Zia ur-Rahman as prime minister and return to parliamentary system (1991)
Dominion status (1947); parliamentary rule by United National Party (1947-56, 1960, 1965-70, and 1977-78) and by Sri Lanka Freedom Party (1956-60, 1960-65, and 1970-77); the constitution of 1972 and the establishment of a presidential system in the constitution of 1978; presidency of J.R. Jayawardene (1978-89) and succession by Ranasinghe Premadasa (1989); insurgent campaign for an independent Tamil state and protracted civil war; assassination of Premadasa (1993); election of Chandrika Kumaratunga (1994)
Dominion status (1947); parliamentary rule by United National Party (1947-56, 1960, 1965-70, and 1977-78) and by Sri Lanka Freedom Party (1956-60, 1960-65, and 1970-77); the constitution of 1972 and the establishment of a presidential system in the constitution of 1978; presidency of J.R. Jayawardene (1978-89) and succession by Ranasinghe Premadasa (1989); insurgent campaign for an independent Tamil state and protracted civil war; assassination of Premadasa (1993); election of Chandrika Kumaratunga (1994)
Tibet since 1920: defense of frontier against China; Chinese invasion (1950) and the reestablishment of Chinese hegemony, complete Chinese government control after 1959; suppression of violent protests against Chinese rule (1987)
Tibet since 1920: defense of frontier against China; Chinese invasion (1950) and the reestablishment of Chinese hegemony, complete Chinese government control after 1959; suppression of violent protests against Chinese rule (1987)
Nepal since 1920: British withdrawal (1947) and revival of Nepalese royal control under Tribhuvan (1951-55), Mahendra (1955-72), and Birendra (crowned 1975); nationwide political unrest (1990) and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy (1990)
Nepal since 1920: British withdrawal (1947) and revival of Nepalese royal control under Tribhuvan (1951-55), Mahendra (1955-72), and Birendra (crowned 1975); nationwide political unrest (1990) and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy (1990)
Postwar independence of Burma (1948) under U Nu, adoption of leftist-neutralist position, internal conflict and military government under U Ne Win (1962-81), continued economic problems, socialist state and new constitution (1974), minority insurgencies, military coup (1988), adoption of the name Myanmar (1989), victory of National League for Democracy in multiparty elections (1990), continued military repression
Postwar independence of Burma (1948) under U Nu, adoption of leftist-neutralist position, internal conflict and military government under U Ne Win (1962-81), continued economic problems, socialist state and new constitution (1974), minority insurgencies, military coup (1988), adoption of the name Myanmar (1989), victory of National League for Democracy in multiparty elections (1990), continued military repression
Malaya and Singapore from 1920 to 1965: British economic policies in Malaya, Japanese occupation (1942-45), British return to power (1945) and progress toward self-government, suppression of Communist insurgents (1948-60), creation of Federation of Malaya (1948) and reestablishment as Malaysia (1963), Singapore's withdrawal (1965) and creation of independent Republic of Singapore
Malaya and Singapore from 1920 to 1965: British economic policies in Malaya, Japanese occupation (1942-45), British return to power (1945) and progress toward self-government, suppression of Communist insurgents (1948-60), creation of Federation of Malaya (1948) and reestablishment as Malaysia (1963), Singapore's withdrawal (1965) and creation of independent Republic of Singapore
Malaysia since 1965: dominance of United Malays National Organization, communal tension and nationwide state of emergency (1969-70), introduction of New Economic Policy (1971), industrialization and exploitation of timber and oil resources, resignation of Prime Minister Datuk Hussein Onn and succession by Mahathir bin Muhammed (1981), the New Development Policy (1991)
Malaysia since 1965: dominance of United Malays National Organization, communal tension and nationwide state of emergency (1969-70), introduction of New Economic Policy (1971), industrialization and exploitation of timber and oil resources, resignation of Prime Minister Datuk Hussein Onn and succession by Mahathir bin Muhammed (1981), the New Development Policy (1991)
Singapore since 1965: People's Action Party (PAP) regime of Lee Kuan Yew (1965-90), rapid economic growth and sustained prosperity, authoritarian style of government and lack of effective political opposition, resignation of Lee and succession by PAP member Goh Chok Tong (1990)
Singapore since 1965: People's Action Party (PAP) regime of Lee Kuan Yew (1965-90), rapid economic growth and sustained prosperity, authoritarian style of government and lack of effective political opposition, resignation of Lee and succession by PAP member Goh Chok Tong (1990)
Post-World War I escape from unequal treaties, problems of kingship and repression, the coup d'etat of 1932 and the establishment of constitutional monarchy, militaristic and pro-Japanese nationalism, the Japanese occupation during World War II
Post-World War I escape from unequal treaties, problems of kingship and repression, the coup d'etat of 1932 and the establishment of constitutional monarchy, militaristic and pro-Japanese nationalism, the Japanese occupation during World War II
Loss of wartime gains and political instability, military domination (1947-68, 1971-73, and 1976-92), border incursions from Cambodia and influx of refugees; constitutional reforms and return to civilian government (1992)
Loss of wartime gains and political instability, military domination (1947-68, 1971-73, and 1976-92), border incursions from Cambodia and influx of refugees; constitutional reforms and return to civilian government (1992)
Indochina since 1920: emergence of independent states and continued strife
Indochina since 1920: emergence of independent states and continued strife
French administration of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos: Vietnamese nationalist movements and formation of the Indochina Communist Party (1930), Japanese occupation in World War II, postwar French administration in southern Vietnam and Cambodia
French administration of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos: Vietnamese nationalist movements and formation of the Indochina Communist Party (1930), Japanese occupation in World War II, postwar French administration in southern Vietnam and Cambodia
Ho Chi Minh's government in northern Vietnam and the French attempt to reconquer the north (1946-54), the Geneva Accords and legal temporary division of Vietnam (1954), French withdrawal and limited U.S. intervention
Ho Chi Minh's government in northern Vietnam and the French attempt to reconquer the north (1946-54), the Geneva Accords and legal temporary division of Vietnam (1954), French withdrawal and limited U.S. intervention
North Vietnam: industrialization, relations with other communist and other Asian countries, war with South Vietnam, U.S. military intervention, cease-fire agreement (1973), conquest of South Vietnam (1975)
North Vietnam: industrialization, relations with other communist and other Asian countries, war with South Vietnam, U.S. military intervention, cease-fire agreement (1973), conquest of South Vietnam (1975)
South Vietnam: civil war and formation of National Liberation Front (1960), U.S. military intervention, cease-fire agreement (1973), end of regime of Nguyen Van Thieu, conquest by North Vietnam (1975)
South Vietnam: civil war and formation of National Liberation Front (1960), U.S. military intervention, cease-fire agreement (1973), end of regime of Nguyen Van Thieu, conquest by North Vietnam (1975)
Socialist Republic of Vietnam: establishment of united Vietnamese government (July 2, 1976), political and economic problems, invasion (1978) and occupation of Cambodia, exodus of ethnic Chinese refugees and border war with China (1979), withdrawal from Cambodia (1989), economic reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s, improved relations with Asian and Western nations, economic growth
Socialist Republic of Vietnam: establishment of united Vietnamese government (July 2, 1976), political and economic problems, invasion (1978) and occupation of Cambodia, exodus of ethnic Chinese refugees and border war with China (1979), withdrawal from Cambodia (1989), economic reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s, improved relations with Asian and Western nations, economic growth
Laos since 1950: civil war to 1954, Geneva Conference (1954) and creation of Laos as a neutral state, domestic instability and continued civil war between Pathet Lao and rightists, military involvement of the U.S. and North Vietnam, Pathet Lao victory and the Lao People's Democratic Republic (from 1975), domination by Vietnam in the 1980s, first parliamentary elections (1989) and new constitution of 1991
Laos since 1950: civil war to 1954, Geneva Conference (1954) and creation of Laos as a neutral state, domestic instability and continued civil war between Pathet Lao and rightists, military involvement of the U.S. and North Vietnam, Pathet Lao victory and the Lao People's Democratic Republic (from 1975), domination by Vietnam in the 1980s, first parliamentary elections (1989) and new constitution of 1991
Cambodia since independence (1953): Sihanouk's domestic politics and severing of relations with the U.S. (1965); deposition of Sihanouk (1970) and Lon Nol and pro-Western realignment; capture of Phnom Penh by communist Khmer Rouge forces (1975); establishment of Democratic Kampuchea (1976); brutal collectivization and resettlement campaign and political persecution, resulting in large-scale deaths; invasion of Cambodia by Vietnamese forces and establishment of Vietnamese-dominated regime (1978-79); formation of coalition government-in-exile (1982), return of Sihanouk and the monarchy (1993)
Cambodia since independence (1953): Sihanouk's domestic politics and severing of relations with the U.S. (1965); deposition of Sihanouk (1970) and Lon Nol and pro-Western realignment; capture of Phnom Penh by communist Khmer Rouge forces (1975); establishment of Democratic Kampuchea (1976); brutal collectivization and resettlement campaign and political persecution, resulting in large-scale deaths; invasion of Cambodia by Vietnamese forces and establishment of Vietnamese-dominated regime (1978-79); formation of coalition government-in-exile (1982), return of Sihanouk and the monarchy (1993)
Dutch suppression of nationalist and communist revolts in the 1920s and 1930s, accommodation with moderate nationalist parties, Japanese occupation in World War II
Dutch suppression of nationalist and communist revolts in the 1920s and 1930s, accommodation with moderate nationalist parties, Japanese occupation in World War II
Sukarno's proclamation of Indonesian independence (1945), Dutch attempt to regain control and UN intervention, formal granting of independence in 1949
Sukarno's proclamation of Indonesian independence (1945), Dutch attempt to regain control and UN intervention, formal granting of independence in 1949
Constitutional democracy (1950) and Guided Democracy (1957-65) under Sukarno; military coup (1965), mass executions of communists and Sukarno's loss of influence; administration of Suharto (from 1966); invasion and occupation of East Timor (since 1975); massive depopulation of East Timor due to starvation and military action; economic effects of the oil boom
Constitutional democracy (1950) and Guided Democracy (1957-65) under Sukarno; military coup (1965), mass executions of communists and Sukarno's loss of influence; administration of Suharto (from 1966); invasion and occupation of East Timor (since 1975); massive depopulation of East Timor due to starvation and military action; economic effects of the oil boom
Economic and social policies of U.S. administration in the 1920s and 1930s, growth of nationalist political parties, establishment as a commonwealth (1935), Japanese occupation (1941-45), return of U.S. control and commonwealth status
Economic and social policies of U.S. administration in the 1920s and 1930s, growth of nationalist political parties, establishment as a commonwealth (1935), Japanese occupation (1941-45), return of U.S. control and commonwealth status
Establishment of the Republic of the Philippines (1946), political developments under successive presidents, U.S.-Philippine relations, administration of Ferdinand E. Marcos (1965-86), communist and Muslim insurgencies, rule under martial law (1972-81), assassination of Benigno Aquino (1983) and resulting unrest, exile of Marcos (1986), administration of Corazon Aquino (1986-1992), election of Fidel Ramos (1992)
Establishment of the Republic of the Philippines (1946), political developments under successive presidents, U.S.-Philippine relations, administration of Ferdinand E. Marcos (1965-86), communist and Muslim insurgencies, rule under martial law (1972-81), assassination of Benigno Aquino (1983) and resulting unrest, exile of Marcos (1986), administration of Corazon Aquino (1986-1992), election of Fidel Ramos (1992)
International developments in the Pacific and the disposition of the dependent territories in Oceania since 1920
International developments in the Pacific and the disposition of the dependent territories in Oceania since 1920
Post-World War II reorganization: economic and social effects of UN trusteeship administrations, movements toward autonomy among the indigenous peoples, independent island states, dissolution of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1986)
Post-World War II reorganization: economic and social effects of UN trusteeship administrations, movements toward autonomy among the indigenous peoples, independent island states, dissolution of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1986)
Developments to 1945: decline of the Labor Party and the Nationalist-Country coalition, industrial and rural development, the Great Depression, formation of the United Australia Party and Lyons' administrations (1931-39), military role in World War II, effects of the war on the economy
Developments to 1945: decline of the Labor Party and the Nationalist-Country coalition, industrial and rural development, the Great Depression, formation of the United Australia Party and Lyons' administrations (1931-39), military role in World War II, effects of the war on the economy
Political and economic developments from 1945: Labor government of Chifley (1945-49), growing prosperity and educational development under Liberal-Country coalition of Menzies (1949-66), Liberal-Country rule under Gorton (1968-71) and McMahon (1971-72), expansion of social services and development of Aboriginal and women's programs under Labor government of Whitlam (1972-75), constitutional crisis and dismissal of Whitlam (1975), Liberal-National Country coalition of Fraser (1975-83), return of Labor government under Hawke (1983-91) and Keating (1991-96), coalition under Howard (from 1996), deregulation of the economy and privatization of state-owned enterprises, Aboriginal land-claims legislation (1993)
Political and economic developments from 1945: Labor government of Chifley (1945-49), growing prosperity and educational development under Liberal-Country coalition of Menzies (1949-66), Liberal-Country rule under Gorton (1968-71) and McMahon (1971-72), expansion of social services and development of Aboriginal and women's programs under Labor government of Whitlam (1972-75), constitutional crisis and dismissal of Whitlam (1975), Liberal-National Country coalition of Fraser (1975-83), return of Labor government under Hawke (1983-91) and Keating (1991-96), coalition under Howard (from 1996), deregulation of the economy and privatization of state-owned enterprises, Aboriginal land-claims legislation (1993)
International relations from 1945: participation in regional security alliances and military involvement in the Korean and Vietnam wars, recognition of China (1972) and North Vietnam (1973), independence of Papua New Guinea (1975), strengthening of economic and political ties to Asian and Pacific nations, opposition to French nuclear testing in the South Pacific
International relations from 1945: participation in regional security alliances and military involvement in the Korean and Vietnam wars, recognition of China (1972) and North Vietnam (1973), independence of Papua New Guinea (1975), strengthening of economic and political ties to Asian and Pacific nations, opposition to French nuclear testing in the South Pacific
Social developments from 1945: growing urban affluence, Aboriginal-rights issues, demographic and cultural changes resulting from large-scale European and Asian immigration, feminism and the women's movement, the environmental movement
Social developments from 1945: growing urban affluence, Aboriginal-rights issues, demographic and cultural changes resulting from large-scale European and Asian immigration, feminism and the women's movement, the environmental movement
Developments to 1945: United (Liberal)-Reform coalition governments, the Great Depression, Labour Party victory (1935) and social welfare programs, participation with Allies in World War II
Developments to 1945: United (Liberal)-Reform coalition governments, the Great Depression, Labour Party victory (1935) and social welfare programs, participation with Allies in World War II
New Zealand since 1945: National and Labour governments, increased participation in Pacific and Asian affairs, Maori nationalism, cuts in social welfare programs
New Zealand since 1945: National and Labour governments, increased participation in Pacific and Asian affairs, Maori nationalism, cuts in social welfare programs
Southwest Asia and Africa: the Late Colonial Period and the Emergence of New Nations in the 20th Century
Southwest Asia and Africa: the Late Colonial Period and the Emergence of New Nations in the 20th Century
Turkey since 1938: World War II and the postwar period, the republic since 1961
Turkey since 1938: World War II and the postwar period, the republic since 1961
New constitution (1961) and government under the Republican Peasants' and Justice parties, period of martial law (1971-73), military coup (1980) and return to civilian government (1983), urbanization and industrialization, economic growth, mixed relations with East and West and with the Arab world, increasing violence of Kurdish separatist guerrillas and government counterinsurgency campaigns from the early 1990s
New constitution (1961) and government under the Republican Peasants' and Justice parties, period of martial law (1971-73), military coup (1980) and return to civilian government (1983), urbanization and industrialization, economic growth, mixed relations with East and West and with the Arab world, increasing violence of Kurdish separatist guerrillas and government counterinsurgency campaigns from the early 1990s
Cyprus since 1920: British administration to 1960, the Republic of Cyprus, political disunity over the question of union with Greece, Turkish invasion (1974) and division of island, unilateral declaration of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (1983)
Cyprus since 1920: British administration to 1960, the Republic of Cyprus, political disunity over the question of union with Greece, Turkish invasion (1974) and division of island, unilateral declaration of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (1983)
Development of the Arab states and Israel in Southwest Asia and Egypt
Development of the Arab states and Israel in Southwest Asia and Egypt
The Arab lands of Southwest Asia under the mandate system
The Arab lands of Southwest Asia under the mandate system
Lebanon and Syria under the French mandate (1920-41): Arab demands for independence, the Druze revolt in Syria (1925-27), establishment of the Lebanese Republic (1926) and internal crises, the Franco-Syrian Treaty (1936), Allied occupation in World War II, Syrian and Lebanese independence
Lebanon and Syria under the French mandate (1920-41): Arab demands for independence, the Druze revolt in Syria (1925-27), establishment of the Lebanese Republic (1926) and internal crises, the Franco-Syrian Treaty (1936), Allied occupation in World War II, Syrian and Lebanese independence
Iraq from 1918 to 1945: British occupation and mandate, independence (1932), political unrest and the role of the military, World War II and British intervention (1939-45)
Iraq from 1918 to 1945: British occupation and mandate, independence (1932), political unrest and the role of the military, World War II and British intervention (1939-45)
Palestine and Transjordan under the British mandate (1920-48): the Balfour Declaration and the acceleration of Jewish settlement and conflicts with the Arabs, the Arab revolt (1936-39) and the Peel Commission, the Biltmore Resolution (1942), the partition of Palestine and the emergence of Israel (1948) and Jordan (1946)
Palestine and Transjordan under the British mandate (1920-48): the Balfour Declaration and the acceleration of Jewish settlement and conflicts with the Arabs, the Arab revolt (1936-39) and the Peel Commission, the Biltmore Resolution (1942), the partition of Palestine and the emergence of Israel (1948) and Jordan (1946)
Egypt from 1922 to 1945: Wafd-led opposition to the continued British presence, politics in the early reign of Farouk I, participation in World War II
Egypt from 1922 to 1945: Wafd-led opposition to the continued British presence, politics in the early reign of Farouk I, participation in World War II
The Arab states in the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and Israel since 1945
The Arab states in the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and Israel since 1945
Lebanon: the multireligious political system, the Khuri regime (1943-52), the presidency of Chamoun and the 1958 crisis, later regimes and the civil war of 1975-76, Syrian military intervention (1976) and subsequent occupation of central and eastern territories, Syrian predominance in Lebanese affairs, the Israeli invasion of 1982 and establishment of Israeli-occupied "security zone" (1983), renewed civil war, de facto division into spheres of influence, government of national unity (1984), continuing civil disorder, cross-border raids by Hezbollah guerrillas and Israeli forces from the early 1990s
Lebanon: the multireligious political system, the Khuri regime (1943-52), the presidency of Chamoun and the 1958 crisis, later regimes and the civil war of 1975-76, Syrian military intervention (1976) and subsequent occupation of central and eastern territories, Syrian predominance in Lebanese affairs, the Israeli invasion of 1982 and establishment of Israeli-occupied "security zone" (1983), renewed civil war, de facto division into spheres of influence, government of national unity (1984), continuing civil disorder, cross-border raids by Hezbollah guerrillas and Israeli forces from the early 1990s
Syria: political instability in the postwar decade, temporary union with Egypt (1958-61), the secessionist regime (1961-63), the Ba`thist coup of 1963, conflicts with Israel, role in the Lebanese civil wars, relations with Palestine Liberation Organization, domestic unrest
Syria: political instability in the postwar decade, temporary union with Egypt (1958-61), the secessionist regime (1961-63), the Ba`thist coup of 1963, conflicts with Israel, role in the Lebanese civil wars, relations with Palestine Liberation Organization, domestic unrest
The establishment of Israel (1948) and resultant conflicts with the Arabs: immigration and politics, foreign aid and economic development, renewed hostilities with the Arab states in the Suez War (1956), the Six-Day War (1967) and the diplomatic stalemate, the war of October 1973, role in the Lebanese civil war, treaty with Egypt (1979), invasion of Lebanon (1982) and withdrawal (1985), Palestinian intifada (from 1987), expansion of Jewish settlements in occupied territory and massive immigration of Soviet Jews, peace talks with Palestinians and Arab states (from 1992), extension of self-government to Palestinians in West Bank and Gaza Strip (from 1995)
The establishment of Israel (1948) and resultant conflicts with the Arabs: immigration and politics, foreign aid and economic development, renewed hostilities with the Arab states in the Suez War (1956), the Six-Day War (1967) and the diplomatic stalemate, the war of October 1973, role in the Lebanese civil war, treaty with Egypt (1979), invasion of Lebanon (1982) and withdrawal (1985), Palestinian intifada (from 1987), expansion of Jewish settlements in occupied territory and massive immigration of Soviet Jews, peace talks with Palestinians and Arab states (from 1992), extension of self-government to Palestinians in West Bank and Gaza Strip (from 1995)
Economic and political problems in Jordan under King Hussein: annexation of the West Bank (1950), ambivalent foreign policy, formation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1964), Israeli annexations (1967), Jordan's expulsion of the PLO (1971), renunciation of claims and ties to West Bank (1988), peace treaty with Israel (1994)
Economic and political problems in Jordan under King Hussein: annexation of the West Bank (1950), ambivalent foreign policy, formation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1964), Israeli annexations (1967), Jordan's expulsion of the PLO (1971), renunciation of claims and ties to West Bank (1988), peace treaty with Israel (1994)
Iraq: postwar reconstruction and social upheavals (1945-58), the revolution of 1958, politics under the republic, military coups (1963-68), oil and the economy, the Ba`th revolution of 1968, the Kurdish question, Iran-Iraq war (1980-88 [officially ended 1990]), invasion of Kuwait (1990) and defeat in Persian Gulf war (1991)
Iraq: postwar reconstruction and social upheavals (1945-58), the revolution of 1958, politics under the republic, military coups (1963-68), oil and the economy, the Ba`th revolution of 1968, the Kurdish question, Iran-Iraq war (1980-88 [officially ended 1990]), invasion of Kuwait (1990) and defeat in Persian Gulf war (1991)
Radicalization of Egyptian politics in the last years of Farouk's reign, the Egyptian revolution (1952) and Nasser's rise to power, the Suez crises (1956), the Six-Day War (1967), Sadat's presidency (1970-81), and assassination (1981), Mubarak's presidency, rise of Islamic fundamentalism
Radicalization of Egyptian politics in the last years of Farouk's reign, the Egyptian revolution (1952) and Nasser's rise to power, the Suez crises (1956), the Six-Day War (1967), Sadat's presidency (1970-81), and assassination (1981), Mubarak's presidency, rise of Islamic fundamentalism
The Arabian Peninsula since c. 1920: the political, economic, and social effects of the discovery of oil and the resultant influx of wealth; British and other great-power influences
The Arabian Peninsula since c. 1920: the political, economic, and social effects of the discovery of oil and the resultant influx of wealth; British and other great-power influences
Emergence of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia under Ibn Sa`fid (1924); oil discoveries and exploitation; the government under Faysal (1964-75), Khalid (1975-82), and Fand; increasing control of oil resources; rise as a dominant Arab power; participation in Persian Gulf War (1991)
Emergence of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia under Ibn Sa`fid (1924); oil discoveries and exploitation; the government under Faysal (1964-75), Khalid (1975-82), and Fand; increasing control of oil resources; rise as a dominant Arab power; participation in Persian Gulf War (1991)
The other Arabian states: Bahrain and Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen (Aden), Yemen (San'a'); Yemeni wars and union negotiations; formation of Gulf Cooperation Council (1981), unification of Yemen (1990) and subsequent civil war (1994), Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and ensuing Persian Gulf War (1990-91)
The other Arabian states: Bahrain and Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen (Aden), Yemen (San'a'); Yemeni wars and union negotiations; formation of Gulf Cooperation Council (1981), unification of Yemen (1990) and subsequent civil war (1994), Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and ensuing Persian Gulf War (1990-91)
The regime of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941-79), premiership of Mohammad Mosaddeq (1951-53) and nationalization of oil resources (1951), ouster of Mosaddeq by U.S.-sponsored military coup (1953) and consolidation of power by Reza Pahlavi, land reform (from 1962), expansion of economy from petroleum revenues
The regime of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941-79), premiership of Mohammad Mosaddeq (1951-53) and nationalization of oil resources (1951), ouster of Mosaddeq by U.S.-sponsored military coup (1953) and consolidation of power by Reza Pahlavi, land reform (from 1962), expansion of economy from petroleum revenues
Revolution of 1978-79, establishment of the Islamic Republic (1979) under Ruhollah Khomeini, political and religious persecution and suppression of Western influence in the early republican regime, support of Muslim fundamentalist movements, Iran-Iraq war (1980-88 [officially ended 1990])
Revolution of 1978-79, establishment of the Islamic Republic (1979) under Ruhollah Khomeini, political and religious persecution and suppression of Western influence in the early republican regime, support of Muslim fundamentalist movements, Iran-Iraq war (1980-88 [officially ended 1990])
Afghanistan since independence (1921): civil disorders, attempts at reform, and economic improvements; constitutional revisions; Soviet invasion of 1979 and guerrilla resistance; Soviet withdrawal, establishment of provisional Islamic republic, continued unrest
Afghanistan since independence (1921): civil disorders, attempts at reform, and economic improvements; constitutional revisions; Soviet invasion of 1979 and guerrilla resistance; Soviet withdrawal, establishment of provisional Islamic republic, continued unrest
The Central Asian republics of Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan: Soviet rule from 1917 and independence after collapse of Soviet Union (1991)
The Central Asian republics of Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan: Soviet rule from 1917 and independence after collapse of Soviet Union (1991)
French colonial policies, the French protectorate and the Spanish Zone in Morocco, the administration of Algeria and the Algerian War of Independence, Tunisian nationalist movements
French colonial policies, the French protectorate and the Spanish Zone in Morocco, the administration of Algeria and the Algerian War of Independence, Tunisian nationalist movements
Establishment of independent states in the Maghrib
Establishment of independent states in the Maghrib
Postwar British and French occupation of Libya, independence (1951), establishment of the republic and emergence of Qaddafi (1969), disruptive role in world affairs, treaty of union with Morocco (1984) abrogated in 1986
Postwar British and French occupation of Libya, independence (1951), establishment of the republic and emergence of Qaddafi (1969), disruptive role in world affairs, treaty of union with Morocco (1984) abrogated in 1986
The emergence of independent Tunisia (1956): formation of republic (1957), Tunisia under Bourguiba's presidency (1957-87); rise of Islamic fundamentalists from the mid-1980s
The emergence of independent Tunisia (1956): formation of republic (1957), Tunisia under Bourguiba's presidency (1957-87); rise of Islamic fundamentalists from the mid-1980s
The emergence of independent Morocco (1956): government under Muhammad V (d. 1961) and Hassan II, the Spanish Zone and its reduction to Ceuta and Melilla, dispute over Spanish (now Western) Sahara, treaty of union with Libya (1984-86)
The emergence of independent Morocco (1956): government under Muhammad V (d. 1961) and Hassan II, the Spanish Zone and its reduction to Ceuta and Melilla, dispute over Spanish (now Western) Sahara, treaty of union with Libya (1984-86)
The Algerian War of Independence (1954-62), French evacuation, and the emergence of independent Algeria (1962): government under Ben Bella (overthrown 1965), Boumedienne (1965-78), and Bendjedid (1979-92); adoption of socialist and Islamic National Charter (1976); support for the Polisario Front in Western Sahara; growing influence of Islamic fundamentalism; military takeover (1992)
The Algerian War of Independence (1954-62), French evacuation, and the emergence of independent Algeria (1962): government under Ben Bella (overthrown 1965), Boumedienne (1965-78), and Bendjedid (1979-92); adoption of socialist and Islamic National Charter (1976); support for the Polisario Front in Western Sahara; growing influence of Islamic fundamentalism; military takeover (1992)
Mauritania and Spanish (Western) Sahara: independent Mauritania (from 1960), Polisario revolt in Western Sahara from the mid-1970s, division of Western Sahara between Mauritania and Morocco and Moroccan takeover of Mauritanian zone (1979)
Mauritania and Spanish (Western) Sahara: independent Mauritania (from 1960), Polisario revolt in Western Sahara from the mid-1970s, division of Western Sahara between Mauritania and Morocco and Moroccan takeover of Mauritanian zone (1979)
The maturation of the European colonial system and the nationalist movements in sub-Saharan Africa since 1920
The maturation of the European colonial system and the nationalist movements in sub-Saharan Africa since 1920
Completion of effective occupation by the European powers: the post-World War I division of former German colonies among other colonial powers, the mandate system
Completion of effective occupation by the European powers: the post-World War I division of former German colonies among other colonial powers, the mandate system
Administrative policies and attitudes of each colonial power: economic development, effects of colonialism on the societies and institutions of the African peoples
Administrative policies and attitudes of each colonial power: economic development, effects of colonialism on the societies and institutions of the African peoples
World War II and postwar changes in colonial policies: decline of the colonial system and rise of African nationalist parties, establishment of independent African countries from 1957, the Organization of African Unity from 1963, the assertiveness of white-settled Africa
World War II and postwar changes in colonial policies: decline of the colonial system and rise of African nationalist parties, establishment of independent African countries from 1957, the Organization of African Unity from 1963, the assertiveness of white-settled Africa
Formation of African independence movements, independence for all the former colonies between 1957 and 1975, the countries of Western Africa after independence, problems of economic development, political instability, military coups and emergence of one-party states
Formation of African independence movements, independence for all the former colonies between 1957 and 1975, the countries of Western Africa after independence, problems of economic development, political instability, military coups and emergence of one-party states
Ethiopia and Eritrea since 1917: internal division and the rise of Haile Selassie, the Italian conquest (1936), Eritrea under Italian rule, federation (1952) and union (1962) with Ethiopia, establishment of military government and abolition of the monarchy (1974), death of Haile Selassie (1975), Eritrean revolt and Somali invasion of the Ogaden, development of Socialist state under Mengistu, fall of Mengistu regime (1991), Eritrean independence (1993)
Ethiopia and Eritrea since 1917: internal division and the rise of Haile Selassie, the Italian conquest (1936), Eritrea under Italian rule, federation (1952) and union (1962) with Ethiopia, establishment of military government and abolition of the monarchy (1974), death of Haile Selassie (1975), Eritrean revolt and Somali invasion of the Ogaden, development of Socialist state under Mengistu, fall of Mengistu regime (1991), Eritrean independence (1993)
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: growth of national consciousness and creation of the independent republic (1956), military coup (1958) and the Abbud government (1958-64), revolt in the southern provinces, return to civilian rule, government of Nimeiri (196985) and temporary resolution of the southern problem, renewed war in the south following introduction of Islamic law (1983) and administrative decentralization, military coups (1985 and 1989) and continued civil war
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: growth of national consciousness and creation of the independent republic (1956), military coup (1958) and the Abbud government (1958-64), revolt in the southern provinces, return to civilian rule, government of Nimeiri (196985) and temporary resolution of the southern problem, renewed war in the south following introduction of Islamic law (1983) and administrative decentralization, military coups (1985 and 1989) and continued civil war
Somalia: independence (1960), internal tensions and territorial disputes, conflict with Ethiopia, military takeover (1969) and regime of Siyad Barre, break with the Soviet Union (1977), war with Ethiopia (1977-78) and continued unrest in the Ogaden, influx of refugees, overthrow of Siyad (1991), clan-based civil war, famine and multinational intervention in the early 1990s
Somalia: independence (1960), internal tensions and territorial disputes, conflict with Ethiopia, military takeover (1969) and regime of Siyad Barre, break with the Soviet Union (1977), war with Ethiopia (1977-78) and continued unrest in the Ogaden, influx of refugees, overthrow of Siyad (1991), clan-based civil war, famine and multinational intervention in the early 1990s
Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika and Zanzibar): revolt against Arab control in Zanzibar (1964), Nyerere and introduction of ujamaa socialism, tension with Uganda and invasion in support of revolt against Amin (1979), economic difficulties and subsequent reforms beginning in the late 1980s
Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika and Zanzibar): revolt against Arab control in Zanzibar (1964), Nyerere and introduction of ujamaa socialism, tension with Uganda and invasion in support of revolt against Amin (1979), economic difficulties and subsequent reforms beginning in the late 1980s
Uganda: independence (1962) and economic growth, the Obote and Amin governments, reign of terror and economic decline, deposition of Amin (1979), reinstatement (1980) and overthrow (1985) of Obote, government of Museveni from 1986, constitution of 1995
Uganda: independence (1962) and economic growth, the Obote and Amin governments, reign of terror and economic decline, deposition of Amin (1979), reinstatement (1980) and overthrow (1985) of Obote, government of Museveni from 1986, constitution of 1995
Kenya: independence (1963) and presidency of Kenyatta (1964-78), death of Kenyatta and succession of arap Moi (1978), establishment of one-party state (19821992)
Kenya: independence (1963) and presidency of Kenyatta (1964-78), death of Kenyatta and succession of arap Moi (1978), establishment of one-party state (19821992)
Central Africa after World War II: the intensification of nationalist movements and the acquisition of independence by the former European colonies
Central Africa after World War II: the intensification of nationalist movements and the acquisition of independence by the former European colonies
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (Republic of Zaire since 1971): the Congolese nationalist movement and independence (1960), secession of Katanga province and UN intervention (1960-64), regime of Mobutu Sese Seko (1965-97)
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (Republic of Zaire since 1971): the Congolese nationalist movement and independence (1960), secession of Katanga province and UN intervention (1960-64), regime of Mobutu Sese Seko (1965-97)
Central African Republic: independence (1960); regimes of Bokassa (1965-79), Dacko (1979-81), and Kolingba (1981-93); presidential election of Patasse (1993)
Central African Republic: independence (1960); regimes of Bokassa (1965-79), Dacko (1979-81), and Kolingba (1981-93); presidential election of Patasse (1993)
Political and economic developments in white-settler-controlled Union of South Africa: the Hertzog administration (1924-33) and the Hertzog-Smuts coalition (193339), political disunity and Allied participation in World War II
Political and economic developments in white-settler-controlled Union of South Africa: the Hertzog administration (1924-33) and the Hertzog-Smuts coalition (193339), political disunity and Allied participation in World War II
White-settler control of Southern Rhodesia: relations with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland and economic, social, and political discrimination against black Africans; Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique
White-settler control of Southern Rhodesia: relations with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland and economic, social, and political discrimination against black Africans; Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique
Indian, Coloured, and black African responses to discrimination: growth of local political organizations, separatist church movements, and mass nationalist movements
Indian, Coloured, and black African responses to discrimination: growth of local political organizations, separatist church movements, and mass nationalist movements
Republic of South Africa (formerly the Union of South Africa): Afrikaner National Party administrations from 1948, government-sanctioned apartheid, establishment of Bantu Homelands (1959), antiapartheid movements and growing international isolation, Soweto riots (1976), constitutional reforms (1983), increasing political dissent, legalization of African National Congress (1990), repeal of major apartheid laws, establishment of black majority rule with victory of African National Congress in first all-race elections (1994)
Republic of South Africa (formerly the Union of South Africa): Afrikaner National Party administrations from 1948, government-sanctioned apartheid, establishment of Bantu Homelands (1959), antiapartheid movements and growing international isolation, Soweto riots (1976), constitutional reforms (1983), increasing political dissent, legalization of African National Congress (1990), repeal of major apartheid laws, establishment of black majority rule with victory of African National Congress in first all-race elections (1994)
Namibia (formerly known as South West Africa): international and internal resistance to South African rule, revocation of UN mandate (1966) and international efforts toward independence, independence of Namibia (1990)
Namibia (formerly known as South West Africa): international and internal resistance to South African rule, revocation of UN mandate (1966) and international efforts toward independence, independence of Namibia (1990)
Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland: British administration of the High Commission Territories, independence (1966, 1968), subsequent relations with South Africa
Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland: British administration of the High Commission Territories, independence (1966, 1968), subsequent relations with South Africa
British Central Africa: postwar economic development in Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland; the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63); rise of black nationalist movements; independence of Zambia and Malawi (1964), governments of Kaunda (1964-91) in Zambia and Banda (1964-94) in Malawi
British Central Africa: postwar economic development in Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland; the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63); rise of black nationalist movements; independence of Zambia and Malawi (1964), governments of Kaunda (1964-91) in Zambia and Banda (1964-94) in Malawi
Zimbabwe (formerly Southern Rhodesia): Rhodesian Front governments of Ian Smith (1964-79), the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI; 1965), civil war, establishment of Zimbabwe (1980), rule of Mugabe from 1980
Zimbabwe (formerly Southern Rhodesia): Rhodesian Front governments of Ian Smith (1964-79), the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI; 1965), civil war, establishment of Zimbabwe (1980), rule of Mugabe from 1980
Developments in the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique: economic advances, nationalist movements, and independence in the mid-1970s; civil war in Angola and intervention by South African and Cuban troops, prolonged guerrilla warfare in Angola and Mozambique in the 1980s; Mozambique-South Africa nonaggression pact (1984); short-lived peace agreements in Angola and withdrawal of Cuban troops (1991); multiparty Angolan elections (1992) and resumption of conflict; end of guerrilla war in Mozambique (1992)
Developments in the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique: economic advances, nationalist movements, and independence in the mid-1970s; civil war in Angola and intervention by South African and Cuban troops, prolonged guerrilla warfare in Angola and Mozambique in the 1980s; Mozambique-South Africa nonaggression pact (1984); short-lived peace agreements in Angola and withdrawal of Cuban troops (1991); multiparty Angolan elections (1992) and resumption of conflict; end of guerrilla war in Mozambique (1992)
Aristotle and the logic of predicates: theories of the structure of language, theories of opposition and conversion, development of syllogistic and modal logic
Aristotle and the logic of predicates: theories of the structure of language, theories of opposition and conversion, development of syllogistic and modal logic
Development of medieval logic: Arabic contributions, disputes between the "old logic" and the "new logic" after the translation of Aristotle's Organon, summations by William of Sherwood and Peter of Spain
Development of medieval logic: Arabic contributions, disputes between the "old logic" and the "new logic" after the translation of Aristotle's Organon, summations by William of Sherwood and Peter of Spain
Medieval theories of language and their relation to the development of logic: the theory of categorematic and syncategorematic terms, the theory of supposition
Medieval theories of language and their relation to the development of logic: the theory of categorematic and syncategorematic terms, the theory of supposition
Modern logic from the Renaissance to the 20th century
Modern logic from the Renaissance to the 20th century
The rise of mathematical logic during the Enlightenment: contributions of Leibniz (e.g., his general calculus of reasoning and general methodology), the search for clarity and the use of diagrams
The rise of mathematical logic during the Enlightenment: contributions of Leibniz (e.g., his general calculus of reasoning and general methodology), the search for clarity and the use of diagrams
Development of mathematical logic in the 19th century: expansions of syllogistic, Boole's algebra of logic, refinements of the calculus, the study by Frege and Cantor of the relation between logic and the foundations of mathematics
Development of mathematical logic in the 19th century: expansions of syllogistic, Boole's algebra of logic, refinements of the calculus, the study by Frege and Cantor of the relation between logic and the foundations of mathematics
The conflict of Logicism, the view that mathematics is a continuation of logic, with Intuitionism and Formalism: Russell's Logicism and the theory of types, Brouwer's Intuitionism, Hilbert's Formalism
The conflict of Logicism, the view that mathematics is a continuation of logic, with Intuitionism and Formalism: Russell's Logicism and the theory of types, Brouwer's Intuitionism, Hilbert's Formalism
Indian logic: its origins in the commentaries on the scriptural texts called sutras, special problems in grammar and special types of inference, interest in the logical implications of the notion of negation
Indian logic: its origins in the commentaries on the scriptural texts called sutras, special problems in grammar and special types of inference, interest in the logical implications of the notion of negation
Chinese logic: its origins in reflections on the characteristics of controversies between the major philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Moism; its neglect after the establishment of Neo-Confucianism in the 11th century AD
Chinese logic: its origins in reflections on the characteristics of controversies between the major philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Moism; its neglect after the establishment of Neo-Confucianism in the 11th century AD
Features and problems of logic: concerns with logical semantics or model theory, questions of the limitations of logic, Geodel's incompleteness theorems, the question of logic and computability
Features and problems of logic: concerns with logical semantics or model theory, questions of the limitations of logic, Geodel's incompleteness theorems, the question of logic and computability
The propositional calculus: the logic of unanalyzed sentences in combination
The propositional calculus: the logic of unanalyzed sentences in combination
General features of the propositional calculus: symbols employed for propositional connectives or operators (i.e., "not," "and," "or," "if ... then," "is equivalent to"), propositional variables
General features of the propositional calculus: symbols employed for propositional connectives or operators (i.e., "not," "and," "or," "if ... then," "is equivalent to"), propositional variables
The predicate calculus: the logic of quantified functions of terms
The predicate calculus: the logic of quantified functions of terms
General features of the predicate calculus: individual variables and predicate variables, universal and existential quantifiers (i.e., "any" or "all," "some" or "one")
General features of the predicate calculus: individual variables and predicate variables, universal and existential quantifiers (i.e., "any" or "all," "some" or "one")
The development of mathematics in general, through ancient, medieval, and modern times
The development of mathematics in general, through ancient, medieval, and modern times
The 19th and 20th centuries: development of non-Euclidean geometry by Bolyai, Lobachevsky, and others; contributions to the theories of groups, functions, and complex variables; development of algebraic geometry; influence of physical science on analysis; study of the foundations of mathematics
The 19th and 20th centuries: development of non-Euclidean geometry by Bolyai, Lobachevsky, and others; contributions to the theories of groups, functions, and complex variables; development of algebraic geometry; influence of physical science on analysis; study of the foundations of mathematics
Historical development of probabilistic areas of mathematics
Historical development of probabilistic areas of mathematics
Alternative views of probability: the frequency theory of probability, the range theory of probability and the principle of indifference, the belief theory of probability, subjective and objective notions of probability
Alternative views of probability: the frequency theory of probability, the range theory of probability and the principle of indifference, the belief theory of probability, subjective and objective notions of probability
The genetic method: mathematical analysis based upon the orderly construction or generation of objects with unknown properties from objects with known properties
The genetic method: mathematical analysis based upon the orderly construction or generation of objects with unknown properties from objects with known properties
The crisis in the foundations of mathematics after 1900: reformulations in terms of the three alternative philosophical positions of Intuitionism, Logicism, and Formalism
The crisis in the foundations of mathematics after 1900: reformulations in terms of the three alternative philosophical positions of Intuitionism, Logicism, and Formalism
Origins of set theory and the definitions of a set and a set element, or member
Origins of set theory and the definitions of a set and a set element, or member
Fundamental definitions and laws: the concepts of natural number and integer; the binary operations of addition and multiplication; the commutative and associative laws of addition; the commutative, associative, and distributive laws of multiplication
Fundamental definitions and laws: the concepts of natural number and integer; the binary operations of addition and multiplication; the commutative and associative laws of addition; the commutative, associative, and distributive laws of multiplication
Number systems and notation: use of the positional principle and the symbol zero to specify magnitude in sequences of digits; number systems having different bases—e.g., binary, decimal, and sexagesimal systems
Number systems and notation: use of the positional principle and the symbol zero to specify magnitude in sequences of digits; number systems having different bases—e.g., binary, decimal, and sexagesimal systems
Logarithms: formal definition of logarithms, use of logarithms to reduce the operations of multiplication and division to the simpler operations of addition and subtraction
Logarithms: formal definition of logarithms, use of logarithms to reduce the operations of multiplication and division to the simpler operations of addition and subtraction
Linear operators in an inner product space: self-adjoint, or Hermitian, operators; unitary and orthogonal operators; the spectral theorem for normal operators
Linear operators in an inner product space: self-adjoint, or Hermitian, operators; unitary and orthogonal operators; the spectral theorem for normal operators
Geometry as an abstract doctrine: the axiomatization of the foundations of geometry; axioms of order, incidence, congruence, parallels, and continuity and results derived from them
Geometry as an abstract doctrine: the axiomatization of the foundations of geometry; axioms of order, incidence, congruence, parallels, and continuity and results derived from them
The measure of polygons and polyhedra: the theories of equivalence and measure and their relation, Euclid's contribution and its modern extension and generalization
The measure of polygons and polyhedra: the theories of equivalence and measure and their relation, Euclid's contribution and its modern extension and generalization
Geometric constructions: the equivalence between Euclidean constructions and existence theorems, gauge constructions, ruler and compass constructions, construction with compass only
Geometric constructions: the equivalence between Euclidean constructions and existence theorems, gauge constructions, ruler and compass constructions, construction with compass only
Special curves: named curves that have been studied with regard to problems in mathematics or the physical sciences; e.g., the folium of Descartes, the lemniscate of Bernoulli, the cardioid, the cycloid, the catenary, the brachistochrone
Special curves: named curves that have been studied with regard to problems in mathematics or the physical sciences; e.g., the folium of Descartes, the lemniscate of Bernoulli, the cardioid, the cycloid, the catenary, the brachistochrone
Special functions that arise as solutions to differential equations; e.g., the hypergeometric function, Legendre polynomials, spherical harmonics, Bessel functions
Special functions that arise as solutions to differential equations; e.g., the hypergeometric function, Legendre polynomials, spherical harmonics, Bessel functions
The nature and scope of combinatorics: the definition of combinatorics as the branch of mathematics concerned with arrangements, operations, and selections within a finite or a discrete system
The nature and scope of combinatorics: the definition of combinatorics as the branch of mathematics concerned with arrangements, operations, and selections within a finite or a discrete system
Definition and basic concepts of topology; the subject matter and applications of topology as exemplified by certain simple topological problems and their solutions
Definition and basic concepts of topology; the subject matter and applications of topology as exemplified by certain simple topological problems and their solutions
Topological spaces: methods for constructing topological spaces; Euclidean n-dimensional space, Hilbert space, Cartesian-product space, and other examples of topological spaces
Topological spaces: methods for constructing topological spaces; Euclidean n-dimensional space, Hilbert space, Cartesian-product space, and other examples of topological spaces
The basic principles of statistical inference: application of the concepts and techniques of probability theory to the analysis of data
The basic principles of statistical inference: application of the concepts and techniques of probability theory to the analysis of data
Distribution functions and their properties: the median, mean, variance, and standard deviation of a distribution; the Gaussian or normal distribution
Distribution functions and their properties: the median, mean, variance, and standard deviation of a distribution; the Gaussian or normal distribution
Introduction: definition and examples of automata, development of the basic concepts of automata theory, the analogy between automata and the nervous systems of living organisms
Introduction: definition and examples of automata, development of the basic concepts of automata theory, the analogy between automata and the nervous systems of living organisms
Science in ancient and medieval Western civilization
Science in ancient and medieval Western civilization
Development of scientific attitudes: the beginning of disciplined observation, inference, definition, and classification; the Platonic versus the Aristotelian view of nature
Development of scientific attitudes: the beginning of disciplined observation, inference, definition, and classification; the Platonic versus the Aristotelian view of nature
The influence of advances in printing, mining, metallurgy, and other areas of technology: the demands placed upon science by increases in trade and exploration
The influence of advances in printing, mining, metallurgy, and other areas of technology: the demands placed upon science by increases in trade and exploration
The nature and scope of the philosophy of science and its relation to other disciplines: the diverse concerns of and methods of approach to the philosophy of science
The nature and scope of the philosophy of science and its relation to other disciplines: the diverse concerns of and methods of approach to the philosophy of science
Historical development of the philosophy of science
Historical development of the philosophy of science
From the beginning of the 19th century through World War I: the influence of Kant's belief in the unique rationality of the classical synthesis of Euclid and Newton
From the beginning of the 19th century through World War I: the influence of Kant's belief in the unique rationality of the classical synthesis of Euclid and Newton
The 20th-century debate: responses to relativity, quantum mechanics, and other profound changes in the natural sciences; Logical Positivism versus Neo-Kantianism
The 20th-century debate: responses to relativity, quantum mechanics, and other profound changes in the natural sciences; Logical Positivism versus Neo-Kantianism
Empirical, conceptual, and formal elements and their theoretical interpretation: diverse views of the relative importance of observation, theory, and mathematical formulation
Empirical, conceptual, and formal elements and their theoretical interpretation: diverse views of the relative importance of observation, theory, and mathematical formulation
The formal structures of science: the problem of constructing a purely formal analysis of scientific inference, the distinction between scientific laws and empirical generalizations
The formal structures of science: the problem of constructing a purely formal analysis of scientific inference, the distinction between scientific laws and empirical generalizations
Movements of scientific thought: the basic procedures of intellectual development in science
Movements of scientific thought: the basic procedures of intellectual development in science
Scientific discovery: the extreme positions of formalism, which emphasizes the rational elements of scientific discovery, and of irrationalism, which emphasizes the role of intuition, guesswork, and chance
Scientific discovery: the extreme positions of formalism, which emphasizes the rational elements of scientific discovery, and of irrationalism, which emphasizes the role of intuition, guesswork, and chance
Validation and justification of new concepts and theories: the view that prediction is the crucial test of scientific validity; the view that coherence, consistency, and comprehensiveness are the essential requirements of a scientific theory
Validation and justification of new concepts and theories: the view that prediction is the crucial test of scientific validity; the view that coherence, consistency, and comprehensiveness are the essential requirements of a scientific theory
Unification of the theories and concepts of separate sciences: attempts to construct an axiomatic system for all of natural science, the reductionist problem of achieving a consistent conceptual basis for two or more sciences
Unification of the theories and concepts of separate sciences: attempts to construct an axiomatic system for all of natural science, the reductionist problem of achieving a consistent conceptual basis for two or more sciences
The status of scientific propositions and concepts of entities: diverse views of the epistemological status of scientific propositions and of the ontological status of scientific concepts
The status of scientific propositions and concepts of entities: diverse views of the epistemological status of scientific propositions and of the ontological status of scientific concepts
The relationship between philosophical analysis and scientific practice: the application of different philosophical doctrines and approaches to different sciences
The relationship between philosophical analysis and scientific practice: the application of different philosophical doctrines and approaches to different sciences
The relevance of scientific knowledge to other spheres of human experience and concern: the social significance of science and of scientific attitudes, limitations on the scientific endeavour
The relevance of scientific knowledge to other spheres of human experience and concern: the social significance of science and of scientific attitudes, limitations on the scientific endeavour
History of the physical sciences: the evolution of astronomy, physics, and chemistry
History of the physical sciences: the evolution of astronomy, physics, and chemistry
Improved determinations of stellar positions and magnitudes; the first measurements of stellar parallax; the compilation of catalogs of nebulae, stars, and star clusters
Improved determinations of stellar positions and magnitudes; the first measurements of stellar parallax; the compilation of catalogs of nebulae, stars, and star clusters
Astronomical tests of general relativity: the gravitational red shift, the deflection of light, the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, the cosmological red shift
Astronomical tests of general relativity: the gravitational red shift, the deflection of light, the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, the cosmological red shift
Major advances in solar-system astronomy: manned lunar missions; exploration of the planets and their satellites with unmanned space probes; analysis of micrometeoroids and meteorites
Major advances in solar-system astronomy: manned lunar missions; exploration of the planets and their satellites with unmanned space probes; analysis of micrometeoroids and meteorites
Advances in instrumentation and methodology: e.g., use of Earth-orbiting observatories; development of electronic radiation detectors; refinement of very long baseline interferometry
Advances in instrumentation and methodology: e.g., use of Earth-orbiting observatories; development of electronic radiation detectors; refinement of very long baseline interferometry
Development of the atomic theory of matter: the discovery of the electron, the discovery of radioactivity and X-rays, the discovery of spectral regularities
Development of the atomic theory of matter: the discovery of the electron, the discovery of radioactivity and X-rays, the discovery of spectral regularities
Development of theories and laws concerning atomic structure, nuclear interactions, and elementary particles, including efforts to produce a unified field theory
Development of theories and laws concerning atomic structure, nuclear interactions, and elementary particles, including efforts to produce a unified field theory
Modern developments in physics: atomic beams, nuclear magnetic resonance, and electron spin resonance methods; development of nonlinear optics; the development of masers and lasers
Modern developments in physics: atomic beams, nuclear magnetic resonance, and electron spin resonance methods; development of nonlinear optics; the development of masers and lasers
The nature and scope of astronomy and astrophysics: the major subject matters and principal problems
The nature and scope of astronomy and astrophysics: the major subject matters and principal problems
Component disciplines of astronomy and their relationship to other sciences: planetary and lunar sciences; meteoritics; the study of comets, minor planets, and the origin of the solar system
Component disciplines of astronomy and their relationship to other sciences: planetary and lunar sciences; meteoritics; the study of comets, minor planets, and the origin of the solar system
The nature and scope of physics: its major subject matters, methods, and problems
The nature and scope of physics: its major subject matters, methods, and problems
Component disciplines of physics: mechanics, thermodynamics, heat, electricity, magnetism, sound, optics, quantum mechanics, states of matter, nuclear and atomic physics
Component disciplines of physics: mechanics, thermodynamics, heat, electricity, magnetism, sound, optics, quantum mechanics, states of matter, nuclear and atomic physics
The application of modern technology to meteorology: ground-based remote-sensing instruments, orbiting satellites, computer models simulating atmospheric features
The application of modern technology to meteorology: ground-based remote-sensing instruments, orbiting satellites, computer models simulating atmospheric features
The nature, scope, and methods of the individual Earth sciences
The nature, scope, and methods of the individual Earth sciences
The geologic sciences: mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, and geochemistry; geodesy, geophysics, structural geology, and volcanology; geomorphology; glacial geology; engineering, environmental, and urban geology; geochronology, historical geology, paleontology, stratigraphy, and astrogeology
The geologic sciences: mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, and geochemistry; geodesy, geophysics, structural geology, and volcanology; geomorphology; glacial geology; engineering, environmental, and urban geology; geochronology, historical geology, paleontology, stratigraphy, and astrogeology
Biology in the Greco-Roman world: theories about mankind and the origin of life; Aristotelian concepts of classification, reproduction, heredity, and descent; botanical investigations; initial anatomical discoveries
Biology in the Greco-Roman world: theories about mankind and the origin of life; Aristotelian concepts of classification, reproduction, heredity, and descent; botanical investigations; initial anatomical discoveries
Biology in the Middle Ages: the influence of Arabian biologists, the development of botany and zoology as separate disciplines, further discoveries in anatomy
Biology in the Middle Ages: the influence of Arabian biologists, the development of botany and zoology as separate disciplines, further discoveries in anatomy
Biology in the Renaissance: the influence of the craft of printing and artists' illustrations on the dissemination of botanical knowledge, the beginning of the scientific study of anatomy through the use of dissection
Biology in the Renaissance: the influence of the craft of printing and artists' illustrations on the dissemination of botanical knowledge, the beginning of the scientific study of anatomy through the use of dissection
The application to biology of the concepts and techniques of other sciences: the development of biochemistry and biophysics, the importance of biological discoveries to medicine and agriculture
The application to biology of the concepts and techniques of other sciences: the development of biochemistry and biophysics, the importance of biological discoveries to medicine and agriculture
The range of topics in biophilosophy; e.g., old questions investigated anew in the light of biological advances and new standards of philosophical rigour
The range of topics in biophilosophy; e.g., old questions investigated anew in the light of biological advances and new standards of philosophical rigour
Early medicine: Western medicine before 1800, Oriental medicine before c. 1900
Early medicine: Western medicine before 1800, Oriental medicine before c. 1900
Reservoirs of medical learning: the role of medieval monasteries in preserving the medical heritage of Greece and Rome, contributions of Arabian medicine
Reservoirs of medical learning: the role of medieval monasteries in preserving the medical heritage of Greece and Rome, contributions of Arabian medicine
The iatrochemical and iatrophysical theories: the view of life as a series of chemical processes versus the view of life as a mechanism governed by physical laws
The iatrochemical and iatrophysical theories: the view of life as a series of chemical processes versus the view of life as a mechanism governed by physical laws
The rise of scientific medicine in the 19th century
The rise of scientific medicine in the 19th century
Other advances: the discovery of the transmission of disease by insects, initial measures to control typhoid, the discovery of X-rays, the development of the ophthalmoscope and the stethoscope
Other advances: the discovery of the transmission of disease by insects, initial measures to control typhoid, the discovery of X-rays, the development of the ophthalmoscope and the stethoscope
Developments in endocrinology: the discovery of insulin and the control of diabetes, the use of cortisone as an anti-inflammatory agent, the study and use of sex hormones
Developments in endocrinology: the discovery of insulin and the control of diabetes, the use of cortisone as an anti-inflammatory agent, the study and use of sex hormones
Tropical medicine: the treatment of yellow fever, malaria, and leprosy through the discovery and application of synthetic organic compounds derived from quinine and other sources; the application of insecticides to control malaria and yellow fever
Tropical medicine: the treatment of yellow fever, malaria, and leprosy through the discovery and application of synthetic organic compounds derived from quinine and other sources; the application of insecticides to control malaria and yellow fever
Medical technology and biomedical instrumentation: the use of electronic devices to monitor physiological processes, to conduct automatic laboratory analyses, and to perform other diagnostic and therapeutic procedures
Medical technology and biomedical instrumentation: the use of electronic devices to monitor physiological processes, to conduct automatic laboratory analyses, and to perform other diagnostic and therapeutic procedures
Nonclinical specialties and the basic medical sciences: medical physiology and pathological physiology, nutrition, pharmacology and experimental therapeutics, gerontology
Nonclinical specialties and the basic medical sciences: medical physiology and pathological physiology, nutrition, pharmacology and experimental therapeutics, gerontology
The Social Sciences and Psychology and Linguistics
The Social Sciences and Psychology and Linguistics
Linguistics and other disciplines: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, linguistic anthropology, linguistic geography, computational linguistics, mathematical and statistical linguistics, stylistics, and semantics
Linguistics and other disciplines: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, linguistic anthropology, linguistic geography, computational linguistics, mathematical and statistical linguistics, stylistics, and semantics
Branches of engineering: civil engineering, aeronautical engineering, chemical engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, mechanical engineering, optical engineering, nuclear engineering
Branches of engineering: civil engineering, aeronautical engineering, chemical engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, mechanical engineering, optical engineering, nuclear engineering
Subdivisions of the agricultural sciences: soil science, plant production, animal production, agricultural economics and management, agricultural engineering
Subdivisions of the agricultural sciences: soil science, plant production, animal production, agricultural economics and management, agricultural engineering
The nature and scope of recently developed interscience disciplines 1. Bionics
The nature and scope of recently developed interscience disciplines 1. Bionics
Mimicry of nature as the basis for bionics; e.g., the human brain as the paradigm for computer memory devices, construction of vehicles with articulated legs
Mimicry of nature as the basis for bionics; e.g., the human brain as the paradigm for computer memory devices, construction of vehicles with articulated legs
The use of natural models to understand and solve engineering problems; e.g., natural neural networks as models for electronic circuits, the human brain as a model for computers and information-processing devices
The use of natural models to understand and solve engineering problems; e.g., natural neural networks as models for electronic circuits, the human brain as a model for computers and information-processing devices
The development of humane letters from the Renaissance to the present
The development of humane letters from the Renaissance to the present
The growth of modern humanistic scholarship: the transition from the ideal of belles [cures to the scientific investigation of antiquity through archaeology and philology
The growth of modern humanistic scholarship: the transition from the ideal of belles [cures to the scientific investigation of antiquity through archaeology and philology
Anthropology and relativism: the Sophists' criticism of cosmological and metaphysical speculations, man as the measure of all things, the positions of the Sophists about the conventionality of law and justice
Anthropology and relativism: the Sophists' criticism of cosmological and metaphysical speculations, man as the measure of all things, the positions of the Sophists about the conventionality of law and justice
The philosophy of Plato: his dialogues on issues in politics, ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, and cosmology; his emphasis on the relations of mathematics to philosophy
The philosophy of Plato: his dialogues on issues in politics, ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, and cosmology; his emphasis on the relations of mathematics to philosophy
The philosophy of Aristotle: his criticisms of Platonic metaphysics and theory of knowledge; the corpus of his works on logic; his teleological positions in biology, ethics, and politics; his empirical researches in the natural sciences and on laws and political institutions
The philosophy of Aristotle: his criticisms of Platonic metaphysics and theory of knowledge; the corpus of his works on logic; his teleological positions in biology, ethics, and politics; his empirical researches in the natural sciences and on laws and political institutions
The philosophy of the Stoics: the teaching of Zeno of Citium concerning the basis of human happiness, the further elaboration of Stoic thought by Cleanthes and Chrysippus, the role of Stoicism during the late Roman Republic and the empire
The philosophy of the Stoics: the teaching of Zeno of Citium concerning the basis of human happiness, the further elaboration of Stoic thought by Cleanthes and Chrysippus, the role of Stoicism during the late Roman Republic and the empire
The philosophy of the Skeptics: the teaching of Pyrrhon of Elis concerning man's lack of certainty in knowing, the role of the Skeptics in preserving the doctrines of ancient philosophers
The philosophy of the Skeptics: the teaching of Pyrrhon of Elis concerning man's lack of certainty in knowing, the role of the Skeptics in preserving the doctrines of ancient philosophers
The philosophy of the Neo-Pythagoreans and of the Neoplatonists: the teaching of Plotinus concerning the various levels of being, Neo-Pythagorean schools in Asia Minor
The philosophy of the Neo-Pythagoreans and of the Neoplatonists: the teaching of Plotinus concerning the various levels of being, Neo-Pythagorean schools in Asia Minor
Jewish and Christian philosophy during the Hellenistic Age: diverse attempts to relate the teachings of the Hellenistic and Roman schools to Jewish and Christian theology
Jewish and Christian philosophy during the Hellenistic Age: diverse attempts to relate the teachings of the Hellenistic and Roman schools to Jewish and Christian theology
The patristic period: Augustine's use of Neoplatonist thought in his theology and his doctrine of man, the role of Boethius' translations and commentaries, Anselm's proofs of the existence of God, the methodology of Abelard
The patristic period: Augustine's use of Neoplatonist thought in his theology and his doctrine of man, the role of Boethius' translations and commentaries, Anselm's proofs of the existence of God, the methodology of Abelard
The contribution of Arabic and Jewish philosophy: the role of the Islamic philosophers in increasing the influence of Aristotle in the West, the teaching of Solomon ibn Gabirol and Maimonides
The contribution of Arabic and Jewish philosophy: the role of the Islamic philosophers in increasing the influence of Aristotle in the West, the teaching of Solomon ibn Gabirol and Maimonides
The age of the Schoolmen: the attempt to reconcile philosophy and theology, the teaching of Bonaventure and Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas' synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christian theology
The age of the Schoolmen: the attempt to reconcile philosophy and theology, the teaching of Bonaventure and Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas' synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christian theology
Philosophy in the late Middle Ages: new styles of philosophy and theology that vied with Thomism, the criticism of Aristotelian thought by Duns Scotus and Ockham, the speculative mysticism of Eckehart, Nicholas of Cusa's doctrine of the "coincidence of opposites"
Philosophy in the late Middle Ages: new styles of philosophy and theology that vied with Thomism, the criticism of Aristotelian thought by Duns Scotus and Ockham, the speculative mysticism of Eckehart, Nicholas of Cusa's doctrine of the "coincidence of opposites"
Humanism: the influence of the writings of Plato on moral theory and literary endeavour; renewed interest in Atomistic Materialism, ancient Skepticism, and Stoicism
Humanism: the influence of the writings of Plato on moral theory and literary endeavour; renewed interest in Atomistic Materialism, ancient Skepticism, and Stoicism
Philosophy of nature: the pluralistic, machinelike, and mathematically ordered character ascribed to the natural world; the influence of discoveries in anatomy, physics, and astronomy on philosophy
Philosophy of nature: the pluralistic, machinelike, and mathematically ordered character ascribed to the natural world; the influence of discoveries in anatomy, physics, and astronomy on philosophy
Developments in the Rationalist tradition: the antiempirical character of Descartes's metaphysics and the dualism of his doctrine of man and the world, the speculative systems of philosophy provided by the writings of Spinoza and Leibniz
Developments in the Rationalist tradition: the antiempirical character of Descartes's metaphysics and the dualism of his doctrine of man and the world, the speculative systems of philosophy provided by the writings of Spinoza and Leibniz
Epistemological issues: the attempt of Locke and Berkeley to inquire into the origin and nature of reason, Hume's science of man, Kant's critical examination of reason
Epistemological issues: the attempt of Locke and Berkeley to inquire into the origin and nature of reason, Hume's science of man, Kant's critical examination of reason
Developments in the empirical and scientific tradition: Comte's Positivism and its subsequent influence on the philosophy of science, J.S. Mill's theory of knowledge and ethics, the dialectical Materialism of Marx and Engels
Developments in the empirical and scientific tradition: Comte's Positivism and its subsequent influence on the philosophy of science, J.S. Mill's theory of knowledge and ethics, the dialectical Materialism of Marx and Engels
The reaction against Rationalism: Kierkegaard's preoccupation with the states of consciousness, Schopenhauer's doctrine of cosmic will, the writings of Nietzsche
The reaction against Rationalism: Kierkegaard's preoccupation with the states of consciousness, Schopenhauer's doctrine of cosmic will, the writings of Nietzsche
Early Indian philosophical thought: the role of Hindu and Buddhist sacred literature in presystematic philosophy, the concepts of Brahman and atman in Hindu thought and of selflessness and Nirvana in early Buddhist writings
Early Indian philosophical thought: the role of Hindu and Buddhist sacred literature in presystematic philosophy, the concepts of Brahman and atman in Hindu thought and of selflessness and Nirvana in early Buddhist writings
The beginning of system building in Indian philosophy: the role of the sutra, metaphysical and epistemological concerns, ethical and political thought, the teaching of the Ajivikas and Carvakas
The beginning of system building in Indian philosophy: the role of the sutra, metaphysical and epistemological concerns, ethical and political thought, the teaching of the Ajivikas and Carvakas
The further developments of systematic thought in India: Realism and Idealism in metaphysical and epistemological thought, the relation of pluralistic and monistic views to various linguistic philosophies
The further developments of systematic thought in India: Realism and Idealism in metaphysical and epistemological thought, the relation of pluralistic and monistic views to various linguistic philosophies
Developments during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods: the origins and concerns of the Zen, JO-do (Pure Land), and Nichiren sects; tendencies in Shinto and Confucian thought
Developments during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods: the origins and concerns of the Zen, JO-do (Pure Land), and Nichiren sects; tendencies in Shinto and Confucian thought
Different types of metaphysical theory: Platonism; Aristotelianism; Thomism; Cartesianism; Idealism; Materialism—dialectical Materialism, Atomism, and Naturalism; Pythagoreanism; Organismic dynamism
Different types of metaphysical theory: Platonism; Aristotelianism; Thomism; Cartesianism; Idealism; Materialism—dialectical Materialism, Atomism, and Naturalism; Pythagoreanism; Organismic dynamism
Theories of thought, knowledge, and faculties of mind
Theories of thought, knowledge, and faculties of mind
Different views of the epistemic status of scientific theories; e.g., realism, conventionalism, and operationalism; the Unity of Science movement; reductionism
Different views of the epistemic status of scientific theories; e.g., realism, conventionalism, and operationalism; the Unity of Science movement; reductionism
Credit: data sourced from [BRIT Explorer](https://sites.google.com/site/britexplorer/home/propaedia)
Credit: data sourced from BRIT Explorer
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