Abstract
The origins and history of African cattle are covered in the introduction to chapter 3. This chapter covers the African Zebu, Zebu–taurine derivatives, and well-established exotic cattle breeds on the continent. The coverage of breeds is in terms of ecological settings, physical and production characteristics, and adaptive and special genetic characteristics. The African Zebu cattle are classified under the following categories: the Large East African Zebu (LEAZ) and the Small East African Zebu (SEAZ), the Southern African Zebu, and the Shorthorn and the Longhorn Zebu of West and Central Africa. The dominance of the Zebu-type cattle in Eastern Africa and the Horn and the relative absence of distinct Taurine cattle in the sub-region are explained by the two waves of cattle introduction into the continent and their subsequent spread from the point of entry. The other group, the Sanga—breeds and strains derived from interbreeding between African Zebu and Taurine cattle—are found in East and Southern Africa. The ‘Sanga’ of West Africa are relatively recent, with the process still actively underway and derived breeds still not fully stabilized. They are referred to in this chapter as ‘Pseudo-Sanga’. The chapter also covers another group of breeds known as the Zenga, which are Zebu–Sanga derivatives. These are mainly found in East Africa but also have representative breeds in Southern (Mozambique) and Central (the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)) Africa. Also covered in this chapter are the commercial composite breeds developed to combine local adaptation and productivity traits (milk and/or beef) through the incorporation of one or more specialized exotic breeds as sources of the productivity genes. The chapter also summarizes the major well-established exotic cattle breeds on the continent—dairy, beef, and dual-purpose—widely used in crossbreeding for milk and/or beef production. Several Zebu breeds and their derivatives are at risk of extinction, some have become extinct, and many are critically endangered. While no comprehensive analysis of the risk status of African cattle breeds has been done since 1999, it is clear that many more breeds are at escalated risk levels. An updated comprehensive survey is overdue, even as steps are being taken to save the most threatened breeds.
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4.1 The Zebu Cattle of Africa
African Bos indicus cattle (Zebu), also known as humped cattle, are known to have descended from the introduction of Zebu into Africa from Asia. As presented in detail in Chap. 3, the domestication of the Zebu is thought to have taken place more than 8000 years ago in South Asia, and the centre of origin of Zebu cattle is believed to be India—from where they spread to Africa and south-east Asia.
Zebu cattle are characterized by a fatty hump on their shoulders, drooping ears, and a large dewlap. The Zebu is represented by some 75 breeds in Africa, making it the largest single cattle type (Rege 1999). Approximately 61 of the Zebu breeds in Africa are found in eastern Africa and neighbouring countries in southern–central Africa, while the rest are found in West Africa. Faulkner and Epstein (1957) coined the term ‘East African Zebu’, to embrace the substantial variation in the morphology of the Shorthorn Zebu in the region. The term is used today to collectively describe the ‘Shorthorn Zebu’ of both eastern and southern Africa (Rege and Tawah 1999).
4.1.1 The Zebu of Eastern Africa
Based on body size, the East African Zebu cattle can be further divided into two subgroups—the ‘Small’ and the ‘Large’. The term ‘Small East African Zebu’ (SEAZ) portrays the small frame of the animals in this subgroup and helps avoid confusion with other types of East African cattle (Mason and Maule 1960). Represented by a total of 49 breeds, the Small East African Zebu (SEAZ) are the majority. The Zebu of eastern and southern Africa are well-adapted to high temperatures and are farmed throughout these regions, both as pure Zebu and as hybrids with Taurine cattle. They are used as draught oxen, as well as for milk and meat production. They also produce by-products such as hides and dung used for fuel and manure.
The Large East African Zebu (LEAZ) is represented by 13 breeds or strains, which are restricted to the relatively drier parts of Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. The isolations over time that have been imposed by physical/ecological restrictions and/or tribal/cultural boundaries have been responsible for the genetic differentiations that have led to the emergence of different breeds and strains (Rege and Tawah 1999). However, variations in nomenclature associated with different tribes and ecologies do not necessarily imply genetic differences. Thus, breeds or strains that have a common ancestry can be classified further, according to whether they occupy the same geographical area (e.g. a country) and/or a defined ecological zone within one or more countries. Rege and Tawah (1999) referred to these two classifications as clusters and groups, respectively (Table 4.1).
4.1.1.1 The Large East African Shorthorn Zebu
Butana and Kenana Cattle
Origin, distribution, and population statistics: The Butana and Kenana cattle together contribute the larger portion of the 44 million cattle population in Sudan and South Sudan. The rest of the cattle in the area are either Baggara or Nilotic cattle. The Butana cattle breed descended from the first Zebu introduction into Africa. The breed largely remained with nomadic pastoralist tribes (the Batahin and Shukria), especially in the Butana plains in central Sudan, east of Khartoum, in the Butana region—the acacia scrub and desert area lying between the Blue Nile and Atbara rivers. However, some of the Butana strains, for example, the Dongola and Shendi strains, are kept by settled farmers. The breed has spread to Gizera in central Sudan and along River Nile in the northern region. They are referred to as Dar El Reih cattle across the White Nile in the northern part of Darfur and Kordofan.
The Butana is not considered to be at risk of extinction. Their population size was estimated at one million heads in 1994 (DAD-IS 2005). Rege (1999) reported a lower figure of 258,000 based on a compilation of reports of ‘pure’ Butana over a period ending in 1991. The breed has been subjected to extensive crossbreeding with exotic (European) cattle since the 1950s and has also been exposed to cycles of droughts. Thus, the breed is declining in numbers, and the actual population size is most likely lower than what is available in the literature. Pure breeding of Butana is still practised on-station (e.g. at the Atbara Research Station).
Ecological settings, management, and production systems: Butana cattle are kept by the Batahin and Shukria ethnic groups that mainly practise nomadic pastoralism and the Dongola and Shendi ethnic groups that are typical agro-pastoralists. They are kept in the Butana plains of central Sudan between the River Nile tributaries of Atbara and Blue Nile, an area that is arid (Rege and Tawah 1999), receiving about 300 mm of rainfall a year. The Kenana cattle, on the other hand, are reared by semi-nomadic pastoralist Fung and White Nile ethnic groups, mainly in the Blue Nile province that receives between 300 and 800 mm of rainfall in one half of the year, the other being dry entirely (Bahbahani et al. 2018). Overall, the main system of production of Kenana is the range system, which includes the pastoral and semi-pastoral types. Nomadism in Kenana is relatively mild.
Physical, adaptive, and special genetic characteristics: The phenotype of Butana cattle presents a characteristic deep red coat colour, while Kenana cattle phenotypically possess a light blue-grey fur coat that turns from brown-red coat colour in calves up to 6 months of age. Kenana cattle have a shading of nearly black on the head, neck, hump, hindquarters, and legs (Yousif and El-Moula 2006). They have short black horns that rarely grow beyond 30–45 cm, which are relatively shorter in males than in females; loose horns are common. Males possess very large and prominent cervico-thoracic hump and dewlap, just as is typical in other Zebu cattle (Rege et al. 2001).
Like other Zebu cattle, the Butana cattle are known to be superior to the humpless cattle in regulating body temperature—hence, they have lower body water requirements. Their hardened hooves and lighter bones enable them to endure long migrations in their acacia scrub and desert habitat. These adaptive attributes are considered to have facilitated their importation and spread by Indian and Arabian merchants across the Red Sea to the drier agro-ecological regions of the Horn of Africa.
The average cattle herd size among typical smallholder farmers of Butana cattle is six animals, while for Kenana, it is ten animals (Mohammed et al. 2014). Prevalent diseases in the Kenana and Butana cattle-rearing areas include brucellosis, foot and mouth disease, theileriosis, and trypanosomosis. The production environment of the Butana and Kenana cattle is characterized by high temperature, low feed quality and quantity, and a high disease and parasite challenge (Musa et al. 2008). Considering some major production traits, these cattle compare very well with 50% crossbred dairy Bos taurus × B. indicus cattle in Sudan, as well as with some of the best cattle breeds in other tropical countries (Musa et al. 2008). Breed improvement options that target crossbreeding should ensure that Bos taurus genetics are kept to a very moderate level, if at all. The possibility of developing a community-based breeding programme for Butana cattle as a dairy breed focusing on optimizing milk yield, growth performance, and lactation length is real, considering that over 66% of farmers who rear these cattle are willing to exchange breeding bulls and establish farmers’ associations (Omer et al. 2021). At the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) level, only taurine mtDNA sequences have been identified, with high diversity (Salim et al. 2014).
Production characteristics: Butana cattle have typical dairy characteristics with an established history of active selection for milk production. Although the breed is raised as a dual-purpose breed, it is known for its good milk production in its harsh habitat. Milk yield per lactation ranges from 1200 to 1800 kg in an average lactation of 240 days. Under on-farm conditions, the average milk offtake is 1.5 kg per cow per day for durations often exceeding a year, and the milk is consumed fresh or used to make ghee and butter, as the milk butterfat content is quite high (4.5% for Butana and 5.5% for Kenana cattle) (Rege and Tawah 1999). Under on-station conditions, their production averages 1662 kg for Butana in a 268-day lactation length (Musa et al. 2005, 2006) and 2264 ± 131 litres in a mean lactation length of 283 ± 11 days (Medani 2003). For the same conditions, the Kenana cattle breed has a mean yield of 1400–2100 kg for a 198–257-day lactation (Musa et al. 2005, 2006) and 1836 ± 186 litres in a mean lactation length of 308 ± 6 days (Medani 2003). Contemporary characterization studies, however, reported that the productive performance of Butana and Kenana cattle is similar at an average of 1415 kg of milk per lactation of 251 days (Lutfi et al. 2005), with a maximum record for an individual cow of 4530 kg in a lactation (Saeed et al. 1987). An average lactation yield of 3626.7 kg has been reported in a meta-analysis (DAGRIS 2022). These characteristics lend to the classification of these cattle as Africa’s indigenous Zebu-type dairy cattle. An assessment of the environmental and genetic factors affecting the milk production of the Butana cattle based on single-record milk yield on-station reported a heritability of 0.278 ± 0.232 and a repeatability of 0.415 ± 0.037 for milk yield (Alim 1962).
Ageeb and Hillers (1991) (Yousif and El-Moula 2006; Wilson 2018) have reported some growth and reproduction parameters. Age at first calving in Kenana cattle averages 4.5 years under traditional production systems, but under improved management, it reduces to 3.0–3.5 years (Wilson 2018). The average birthweight of Kenana cattle is 22.7 kg (range 21–26 kg in males and 20–24 kg in females), rising to 56.7 kg at 6 months and adult bulls and cows attaining 300–500 kg (average 370 kg) and 250–350 kg (average 320 kg), respectively. Calving intervals measured on-station averaged 18 months with a lifetime production of 4.02 calves (mean) and 12 calves (maximum), while on-farm, under traditional systems, cows are culled after three calvings, with an average lifetime production of 2.9 calves (Wilson 2018). Earlier studies had reported a mean calving interval of 416 days (13.8 months) (Alim 1962). The rather low production level on-farm could be partly explained by the high age at first calving. Repeatability for calving interval has been estimated at 0.111 ± 0.039, 0.415 ± 0.043 for lactation period, and 0.221 ± 0.037 for dry periods. The average calving rate was 59%, measured over four decades ago, and was distinctly higher (60%) in migratory than in sedentary (40%) production systems.
The two breeds (Butana and Kenana) produce an estimated 7.4 million tons of milk annually (Wilson 2018). They also contribute an estimated 67.2% of red meat. Butana cattle additionally provide draught power and insurance and meet the sociocultural needs of the rural communities that rear the breed (Omer et al. 2021).
Figure 4.1 presents a Butana cow with a calf and a Kenana cow.
A Butana cow with a calf and a Kenana cow. (Source: https://twitter.com/ensembl/status/951859117488005120 - Open Access)
Baggara Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: Like their neighbours, Butana and Kenana, the Baggara cattle descended from the first Zebu introduction into Africa. The Baggara are reared in the west, central, and southern Darfur; central and southern Kordofan; Nuba Mountains; and the Sulien Baggara sub-region of Sudan. They are named after the Baggara people of western Sudan and central Chad, who raise these cattle. Baggara means cattle people in the local Shuwa Arabic language. Baggara cattle have common grazing lands and migratory routes with small Nilotic and large Fulani cattle, which results in indiscriminate crossbreeding, leading to admixture, with unknown breed composition and high variability in body conformations. Baggara cattle are estimated to constitute 33% of the total 44 million national cattle herd of Sudan.
Physical characteristics: They are medium-sized, smaller, and thinner than the Boran breed of Kenya and Ethiopia and have varied coat colours, horn shapes, and conformation. They have cervico-thoracic humps, which are relatively large, particularly in males, and their dewlaps are well-developed and prominent. The cattle in Darfur possess the largest horns. Baggara cattle are smaller than the Boran breed of Kenya and Ethiopia. Baggara cattle are horned with cervico-thoracic humps and have a large and prominent dewlap. Figure 4.2 shows a herd of Baggara cattle.
A herd of Baggara cattle. (Courtesy: AGTR, ILRI)
Production characteristics and uses: The breed is primarily used for beef and is the major beef animal in Sudan. Baggara cows typically produce 1.2–2.5 kg of milk per day, with a total 305-day adjusted lactation milk yield of 366 kg. Under favourable conditions and good management, 70% of the cows become pregnant, compared to 45% of cows under unfavourable conditions. About 25% of the cows that conceive normally fail to maintain the foetus to full term and abort, usually towards the end of the pregnancy period. Malnutrition, arising from substantial seasonal feed shortages, and stresses from diseases have been suggested as the main causes of foetal loss. There have been concerted breed improvement programmes of the Baggara by the Sudanese Department of Agriculture.
Adaptive characteristics: The Baggara are characterized by their adaptive characteristics and high performance in hot and dry agro-ecosystems such as in the dry Sahel. The related Butana and Kenana breeds of the Nile Valley, known for their good dairy attributes, need much more feed and water than the Baggara.
The Karamojong Zebu
Distribution and population statistics: The Karamojong cattle is the only LEAZ type found in Uganda. They were estimated to be 510,000 heads in 1999, and the population has most likely increased (even doubled) with the control of cattle rustling and increased livestock management infrastructure in the Karamoja region, animal disease management, the establishment of livestock water reservoirs, and pasture improvement efforts. These cattle are kept by the Jie, Pian, Matheniko, Tepeth, Dodoth, Nyaakwae, Bakora, and Pokot tribes, who are collectively classified as the Karamojong people, numbering about 1.2 m people (UBOS., The Uganda Demographic and Health Survey (UDHS), Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) 2011), and are nomadic pastoralists who roam large areas in search of water and pasture for their livestock. They occupy the entire North-Eastern region of the Republic of Uganda, incorporating the districts of Abim, Amudat, Kaabong, Karenga, Kotido, Moroto, Nabilatuk, Nakapiripirit, and Napak, an area of 27,900 square kilometres (Loquang 2003).
Ecological settings, utility, and management: The Karamojong tribe that maintains this breed is the most influential tribe among the Karamoja-Nilotic people in the north-eastern region of Uganda, and their herds are maintained in the original homeland. These cattle are kept for their multipurpose roles that include the provision of milk, meat, and blood (all used as food); payment of dowry; the provision of hides that are used for shelter, beddings, and making of traditional sandals; the provision of dung that is used for building homesteads and as manure; and the use as a source of power for cultivation, transport, and haulage (Loquang 2003). The skin of calves is used as clothing, though this practice is slowly dying out.
Physical, adaptive, and special genetic characteristics: Karamojong cattle are a large breed with coat colours varying from red, light fawn, or tan (with or without white patching), roan, grey to white. Their horns vary widely in length and shape, and they possess a large and dome-shaped hump. The dewlap, umbilical fold, and sheath are larger in the Karamojong type than in the Toposa, and their udder is moderately well-developed. The cattle are similar in conformation to the Boran cattle—deep body, long legs, and well-developed pyramidal hump. Figure 4.3 shows typical Karamojong cows.
Typical Karamojong cows with suckling calves. (Courtesy: Dr. Donald Kugonza)
The Karamojong cattle have several unique characteristics that include being drought-tolerant, disease-resistant, and generally a ‘hardy breed’—e.g. they do not require a lot of forage, can survive for many days without drinking water, and can easily graze on rough terrain. In addition, their meat is considered tastier and more tender than that of the other cattle breeds in the area. The cattle-keeping community practises selective breeding with particular focus on the breeding of cows and bulls that are hardy and can trek for long distances in search of pasture and water, are aggressive and can ward off predator attack, are disease-tolerant, and do not experience calving difficulty (Rege and Tawah 1999). Selective breeding is made possible by applying strict selection criteria that target animals of well-known lineage, with parents known to perform well, from a lineage of animals that are disease-tolerant, and with offspring that remain healthy right from birth to maturity. Consequently, these cattle are well-adapted to their very dry climate and semi-nomadic pastoral system.
Production characteristics: Karamojong cattle are largely reared for milk and meat (Rege 1999). In addition, they are used for ploughing. The mature live weight of these cattle is 320–490 kg in males and 300–410 kg in females. A study by Behnke and Arasio (2019) reported that the cattle in Karamoja make very substantial economic contributions to Uganda’s national livestock economy—accounting for 39% of the national cow milk value and 27% of the national cattle offtake value.
The Boran/Borana Cattle
Origin, distribution, classification, and population statistics: The Boran is a Zebu breed maintained by the Borana pastoralists of southern Ethiopia and contiguous areas of Kenya and Somalia. It is considered that all the Boran cattle were derived from the native Shorthorn Zebu cattle of the cattle-keeping tribes of southern Ethiopia—home of the Borana people. It is estimated that their ancestors arrived in the Horn of Africa about 1300–1500 years ago from south-west Asia. Large numbers of these animals then migrated from the Liben Plateau of southern Ethiopia to Somalia, where they are named as the Awai cattle, and to Kenya, where they are known as the Tanaland Boran and Orma Boran. In the 1920s, European ranchers in Kenya purchased the Tanaland Boran cattle and, through selection, developed the Improved Boran. The present-day Boran cattle populations in eastern Africa can be classified under five strains (Rege 1999): Ethiopian Boran (Borana), Unimproved Boran (Boran), Orma Boran, Somali Boran (Awai), and the Improved or Kenya Boran (commercial breed).
Today, the Ethiopian Boran (Borana) cattle are mainly found on the Borana Plateau, from the Liban Plateau to the extreme south, where they number about 1,896,000 heads. The Improved Boran is essentially a commercial breed kept in the commercial ranches in Kenya, has been selected for beef production, has 580,570 animals, and has been exported to Tanzania, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Zambia. Over time, the development of the Improved Boran has incorporated the Orma Boran, the Borana of Ethiopia, and the Somali Boran. The Kenyan Boran Cattle Breeders’ Society has been in existence since the early 1950s and has been spearheading the selective breeding of the Boran in the country. In more recent times, the Boran breed was introduced to Australia, the United States, Brazil, and Mexico. As of 2008, there were approximately 454 beef ranches in Kenya, under five categories: group ranches, private company ranches, cooperative ranches, public company ranches, and government ranches. The Boran breed is a common feature across these ranch categories in Kenya.
The Kenyan Unimproved Boran cattle are kept in north-east Kenya, where there are 1,882,000 animals, largely owned by pastoral herders, while the Orma Boran cattle breed is kept in the North-east of Kenya, with a total of 547,000 heads.
Ecological settings, management, and production systems: The habitat of the Borana or Boran cattle in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia is typically the arid and semi-arid lands characterized by recurrent drought, degraded rangelands, and an increasing reduction in access to traditional grazing lands. The region has a savannah landscape, marked by gently sloping lowlands and floodplains vegetated predominantly with grass and bush land. Pasture is the main (and often the only) source of feed for livestock in these pastoral systems. Severe grazing shortage is common. Severe livestock losses and reduced livestock productivity are also common during dry periods. This situation is being exacerbated by climate change and invasive weeds such as Ipomoea spp., Prosopis spp., and Parthenium spp., which are also accelerating the degradation of the rangeland ecosystem in these areas.
Annual mean temperatures in the Boran habitat vary between 19 and 24 °C. Rainfall in the Borana lowlands is bimodal, with long rains expected between March and May (59% of the rainfall) and short rains (27%) between October and November, but these have changed significantly recently. Mean annual rainfall between the years 1988 and 2001 was 412–566 mm. The scarcity of surface water is widespread, and livestock are trekked long distances in search of both water and pasture. Over the past three decades, there has been an increasing incidence of recurrent droughts, reduced rainfall, and a decreasing availability of grazing and water resources. However, the feed situation is significantly better on the ranches—typically with improved pastures, fodder crops, and other supplementary feeds, as well as water sources. The woodlands of Borana rangelands are characterized by species from the genera Combretum and Terminalia, whereas the bushlands and thickets, which cover major parts of the Borana lowlands, are dominated by Acacia and Commiphora species. Pastures are predominantly short-lived perennial or annual grasses with scattered eucalyptus trees. They occur on level-to-undulating plains. Soils are variable-depth loams, sometimes calcareous, and the surface may be stony.
Physical, adaptive, and special genetic characteristics: The Boran cattle breed has the ability to survive, produce, and reproduce under high ambient temperatures, low-quality forage resources, long watering intervals, and tick infestation. As such, the breed is versatile and well-adapted to arid and semi-arid environments. Boran cows are efficient converters of pasture forage into body fat deposits, which are mobilized during periods of feed scarcity and lactation, minimizing the loss of body condition during lactation or slight droughts (Hagos 2016).
A phylogenetic study (Hanotte et al. 2000) indicated that the Boran has a 100% indicine Y allele. However, a subsequent study (Hanotte et al. 2003) analyzed the autosomal loci of the Boran and reported the proportions as 64% Bos indicus, 24% European Bos taurus, and 12% African Bos taurus. The European-Near East taurine background in the Boran is of some antiquity and possibly recent crossbreeding with exotic European taurine, as well as an African indigenous taurine background, which is not found in any Asian Zebu crosses such as Sahiwal or Brahman.
The Ethiopian Borana is a medium-sized, deep-chested, and long-legged cattle breed. Its coat colour is white, light grey, or fawn with black or dark brown shading on the neck, head, shoulders, and hindquarters (Rege et al. 2001). Its horns are thick at the base, short and erect; the hump is well-developed and hangs over to one side in males, as is typical of Boran cattle, and cows have well-built udders. The Kenyan Improved Boran, on the other hand, possesses a white coat colour with black spots and resembles other types of Boran but mainly differs from the Unimproved Boran by having a straight top line and well-developed hindquarters. Ethiopian Borana may also have other colours ranging from brown to red, though these are rare in occurrence. The breed is medium in size with a short head, small ears, loose dewlap, and a large hump above the shoulders. They can be horned or polled. They vary in height at the withers from 114 cm to 147 cm. Their skin is loose, thick, and extremely pliable—an attribute that is linked to enhanced insect repellence. The skin is also dark-pigmented with fine, short hair, which is considered to provide heat tolerance.
The Orma Boran cattle typically have a white or fawn coat colour with unpigmented skin. It is mostly used for milk and meat. The Orma are well-adapted to local conditions and parasites. They are also known for their fertility, early maturation (compared to other Zebu breeds), hardiness, and docility. Studies have indicated that the Orma Boran may have a degree of resistance to African trypanosomosis and can be productive under tsetse challenge with minimum drug intervention (Dolan 1997; Bett et al. 2004). Figure 4.4 presents a Kenya Boran bull (a) and herd (b) in a ranch and Ethiopian Boran bulls (c).
A Boran bull (a) and herd (b) at the Sosian ranch in Kenya and typical Ethiopian Boran bulls in Yabello, Borana, southern Ethiopia. (Courtesy: ILRI)
A recent review (Bayssa et al. 2021) has attributed a higher resistance to biting insects and tick infestation in the Boran to the following attributes of the breed: (a) a highly sensitive and motile skin with a thick, well-developed layer of subcutaneous tissue, which causes the muscles beneath the skin to contract and move in reaction to insects—thus enabling them to shake off external pests; (b) short hair coat, which makes it difficult for insects to attach onto the hides of the Boran cattle; (c) a waxy and oily secretion from the skins of the Boran, which makes them less desirable hosts for ticks and flies; and (d) prominent, protective eyebrows and long eyelashes, which protect their eyes from bright sunlight, dust, and other irritants that predispose cattle to pinkeye infection. Other studies have attributed the ability of the Boran to thrive well in hot and dry environments to the high number of sweat glands, which allow it to withstand high ambient temperatures (DAGRIS 2022).
Production characteristics: Boran cattle are used mainly for milk and meat. The Improved Boran is primarily reared for meat, milk, and work (Rege et al. 2001), but the breeding focus is on beef traits. The average birthweight of the Ethiopian Boran is 25 kg for male calves and 23 kg for females, while weight at maturity is 300–385 kg (male) and 300–350 kg (females). The Improved Kenyan Boran differs from other Boran sub-types due to its larger size and well-developed hindquarters. The prominent sizes of the Kenyan Improved Boran make them the heaviest in the region, at 550–850 kg in mature males and 400–550 kg in mature females. The Kenyan Unimproved Boran is much smaller than the Improved Boran and attains a mature weight of 255–395 kg (males) and 250–355 kg (females). The mature males of the Somali Boran weigh 295–410 kg, and females weigh 230–355 kg, while the male Orma Boran range in size from 225 to 395 kg and the females from 250 to 355 kg. Besides the well-developed beef conformation, the Boran also exhibits good carcass quality characteristics: The depth of eye muscle, marbling, an even fat cover, and the ratio of hind to forequarter stand out in the Boran compared to other local breeds and make well-finished Boran steers the favourites of butchers and hoteliers in Kenya.
The Improved Boran cows have been reported to produce 1130 kg of milk over a 36-week lactation period, with calves suckled three times a day (DAGRIS 2022). Under a more favourable production environment, Boran cows produce up to 1657 kg of milk over a 252-day lactation period (Zander et al. 2009). Overall, although their production potential is less compared with exotic and crossbreeds, the level of production of Boran cattle is relatively stable during harsh conditions where high-producing exotic animals are at risk (Abdurehman 2019).
4.1.1.2 The Small East African Shorthorn Zebu
The Small East African Zebu (SEAZ) is the main type of cattle populating East Africa (Rege et al. 2001). The SEAZ are preferred by the majority of local smallholder farmers over the pure exotic highly productive taurine breeds due to their superior adaptability to the local environment, which is characterized by a warm climate (20–23 °C), high humidity (60–80%), and high disease challenges (e.g. Theileria parva, Ehrlichia ruminantium, and Haemonchus placei) (de Clare Bronsvoort et al. 2013). These cattle show a degree of resistance to Rhipicephalus appendiculatus tick and the vector of East Coast fever (ECF) protozoan parasite T. parva (Latif et al. 1991; Latif and Pegram 1992) as well as tolerance to poor forage and water scarcity (Western and Finch 1986). A mortality rate of 16% has been observed in an SEAZ population of western Kenya under the traditional management system (de Clare Bronsvoort et al. 2013; Thumbi et al. 2013). The mortality was mainly attributed to ECF, haemonchosis, and heartwater.
The genetic structure of these cattle has been investigated by Mbole-Kariuki et al. (2014) using mid-density genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data. The study confirmed the long-held position by many researchers that the East African Shorthorn Zebu (EASZ) is a stabilized admixed population of Zebu and African taurine ancestries. The average genome proportions reported by this study were 0.84 ± 0.009 and 0.16 ± 0.009, respectively. However, some of the EASZ animals showed recent European taurine introgression, likely linked to artificial insemination programmes aiming to improve indigenous cattle productivity (Mbole-Kariuki et al. 2014). This crossing with European taurine cattle has been linked to the increased vulnerability of EASZ to infectious diseases (Murray et al. 2013).
A recent high-density genome-wide SNP analysis of the EASZ from Kenya (KEASZ) and Zebu × Taurine–admixed cattle populations from Uganda and Nigeria (Bahbahani et al. 2017) found that 25 of the regions were shared between KEASZ and Uganda cattle, and seven regions were shared across the KEASZ, Ugandan, and Nigerian cattle. The identification of common candidate regions allowed the mapping of 18 regions that intersect with genes and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with reproduction and environmental stress (immunity and heat stress) and was interpreted to suggest that the genomes of the Zebu × Taurine–admixed cattle have been uniquely selected to maximize the hybrid vigour, in terms of both reproduction and survivability.
The Teso Zebu group of Uganda consists of two strains, the Kyoga and the Usuk. The Kyoga inhabits the Lango and Kaberamaido areas, is larger than the Nkedi, and has deeper chest and shorter legs. The forehead is broad, and ears are pendulous. The Usuk is found around the north-east and North Teso areas adjacent to the Karamoja and is also larger than the Nkedi (Rege and Tawah 1999). The Nkedi cattle occupy Bukedi, Lango, and much of South-Eastern Uganda (Pallisa, Iganga, Kamuli, and Tororo areas). In Kenya, the Teso Zebu is reared by the Teso ethnic group in the Busia district of Western Kenya, near the border with Uganda.
The Highland Zebu cattle of Kenya (also known as Kikuyu Zebu) occupy the highlands of central Kenya, where they have been heavily crossed with purebred exotic European breeds. The breed is currently endangered. The Lowland or Coastal Zebu, on the other hand, include four strains named according to the tribes that keep them, namely Kamba, Taita-Taveta, Giriama, and Duruma. The Maasai Zebu have their homeland in Southern Kenya and the adjoining areas of northern Tanzania, particularly in the Moshi, Upase, and Usambara areas. Due to the centuries-old traditional practice of cattle raids, present-day cattle of the Maasai are very heterogeneous, having some similarities with the adjacent Kenyan Zebu breeds (Rege and Tawah 1999). In Tanzania, the Maasai Zebu is found distributed from the northern to the southern parts of the country. Genetically, Maasai cattle are clustered with the Nandi, Taveta, Turkana, and Teso Zebu cattle (Rege et al. 2001).
The Kavirondo Zebu are kept by the Luo and Luhya ethnic groups that occupy the Nyanza and Western provinces/regions of Kenya in the Lake Victoria Basin. A small cluster of SEAZ cattle called the Lugware includes ecotypes called the Bahu, Lagware, and Lugwaret. The Lugware ecotypes are kept in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the Kibali-Ituri district, in the north-western part of Uganda, west of River Nile.
The Tanganyika Shorthorn group is made of the Iringa Red that is reared in the Singida region of Central Tanzania and the Maasai Grey that thrives in Moshi, Upase, and Usambara regions of Northern Tanzania. The Ugogo Grey, Mkalama Dun, Singida White, and Pare cattle occupy central Tanzania, while the Tarime and Chagga are in the Mara and Usambara regions, respectively.
Ecological settings, utility, management, and production systems: Poor nutrition is one of the major problems affecting livestock productivity in the habitats of the Zebu cattle. This is normally reflected in reduced live weights, perpetual low animal productivity, late age at first parturition, increased parturition intervals, prolonged non-productive life, and high mortalities. The production systems in most habitats of the SEAZ are typified by natural pastures as the major feed resource, and its utilization is through continuous grazing.
Tethering is common during the cropping season in some locations—e.g. in Kitui County of Kenya. This system is often adopted in response to the shortage of herding labour when farming activities are at their peak. Tethered animals can obtain sufficient access to pasture during this period of the year while also ensuring control of animals that could otherwise stray onto other people’s farms. Feed conservation is commonly practised in the form of crop residues (cereal straws) and hay from native pastures. These conserved feeds are fed to animals during the dry season, work oxen during the cropping season, and in-calf and lactating cows. Supplementation of the indigenous breeds using high energy and protein concentrates is rarely practised in these systems. Equally rare is the provision of mineral licks as part of cattle diets. However, animals exploit various natural salt deposits that exist in the grazing fields. These practices are similar to those prevalent in other regions of Africa—e.g. in Nigeria (Pullan 1979; de Jode et al. 1992) and Botswana (Trail et al. 1977).
Physical, adaptive, and special genetic characteristics: The typical SEAZ is a relatively small, dual-purpose animal and is stocky in appearance. They have no dominant coat colour, but black, black and white, brown, brown and white, and a ‘dalmatian’ pattern are common. The horns are short and thick at the base and curve slightly outwards. The musculo-fatty hump is prominent and thoracic in position. The ears are medium-sized and directed outwards. The skin is of medium thickness, and the hair is short and smooth. The hooves are medium and hard. Horns are short and lyre-shaped, and the hump is well-developed with a varying posterior overhang. The dewlap is of moderate size. The Lowland Zebu varies in coat colour from black to red, and there are significant variations in horn shape, horn presence, and hump size. The Lugware are small-sized, hardy, and fine-boned, with coat colours varying from black to grey and from brown to white. Their skin is pigmented, and the horns are short and grow sideways and upwards in a crescent shape, while the hump is large, as is typical of Zebu cattle, and tends to hang over to one side at the rear. The dewlap is moderate in size, and the umbilical fold is very small. Figure 4.5 shows an SEASZ in Tanzania.
A herd of Small East African Zebu in Tanzania. (Courtesy: Dr. Gladness Mwanga)
Production characteristics. The Taita-Taveta Zebu weight ranges are 194–405 kg in mature males and 125–360 kg in mature females (Rege et al. 2001). The bodyweights of the adult Maasai Zebu range between 300 and 445 kg in mature males and between 275 and 385 kg in mature females. The Kavirondo Zebu cattle have a black coat colour, though white and a combination of both are also seen. The mature weights of these cattle are 215–419 kg (males) and 195–365 kg (Females) (Rege et al. 2001). Mwacharo and Rege (2002) reported average milk production per day of 1.6 litres in Kenya, with significant differences being observed between locations (counties) and, hence, Zebu strains, at the start and peak of lactation.
4.1.2 The Southern African Zebu
The Zebu breeds of southern Africa are in two groups, the Angoni group and the Madagascar group. The former includes Angoni (of Zambia); Angonia or Angone (Mozambique); and Malawi Zebu, while the latter has two breeds, the Baria and the Madagascar Zebu. A brief description of these breeds is presented below.
The Angoni
Distribution and ecological settings: The Angoni belongs to an SEAZ group of cattle believed to have been introduced to Africa by the Indian and Arabian merchants. The Angoni group of cattle is believed to be the descendant of the original Zebu introduced through the Horn of Africa. These cattle were maintained by the Angoni people who descended from the Nguni tribe in South Africa. The Angoni people are supposed to have lost their original Sanga cattle and restored them with Zebu as they wandered as far north as Lake Tanganyika and subsequently settled on the Angoni plateau of eastern Zambia and the adjoining parts of Malawi between 1850 and 1870. These cattle became known as Angoni cattle. The Angoni people later spread southwards, reaching north-western Mozambique. The cattle breeds that emerged in this process are known today as Malawi Zebu in Malawi, Angoni in Zambia, and Angone or Angonia in Mozambique (Rege and Tawah 1999). Angoni cattle are mostly found in the Eastern province of Zambia, parts of Isoka district in Muchinga province, the adjoining areas of Malawi between the Lungwa River in the west and Lake Malawi in the east, and into Tanzania. They also spread southwards, reaching north-western Mozambique. In Mozambique, they are distributed north of the Zambezi River, in the plateau of Tete in the Tete district, in a small area of Angonia to the extreme north-east on the Malawi border.
Physical and production characteristics and uses: The coat colour of the Angoni in Zambia is highly variable—red, brown, black, red or black and white, or brindle. Similar to Malawi Zebu, the horns of the Zambian Angoni are short and thick and lateral rather than upright. The hump and dewlap are well-developed. The Angoni has a compact body frame that is generally larger than the Tonga but smaller than the Barotse. The body size varies from medium to large, with males weighing up to 730 kg. The Mozambique Angone is much smaller than the Zambian Angoni and resembles the Malawi Zebu more than it does the Zambian Angoni. The large size of males and the large compact body make them ideal for draught power. Nearly all the males and, in some instances, even females are used as work animals. The females have characteristic large udders that make the breed ideal for crossing with exotic breeds for milk production. Typical Angoni bull and cow are shown in Fig. 4.6.
Angoni bull (a) and a cow with a calf (b). (Courtesy: Dr. Maria da Gloria Taela)
With an estimated population of 797,000 heads in Malawi, 300,000 in Zambia, and 65,000 in Mozambique, the Angoni is not yet at risk. However, its continued interbreeding with neighbouring Sanga populations may put it at risk over time.
The Madagascar Zebu
Distribution and ecological settings: The Madagascar Zebu, also called Omby Malagasy, is believed to have originated from the interbreeding of the Indo-Pakistani Zebu cattle and the African Sanga cattle. Indonesian immigrants are known to have brought Indo-Pakistani Zebus to Madagascar from India and Arabia, while Hamitic and Bantu people from East Africa introduced humpless and Sanga cattle. East African Zebus were also imported to the island from 1506 onwards, and the interbreeding among these cattle produced a stabilized indigenous breed of the Madagascar Zebu today (Rege and Tawah 1999). More recent studies have found a higher indicine ancestry in the Madagascar Zebu populations as compared to other African continental Zebus and have attributed this to a second pulse of Indian Zebu introgression into an already admixed African taurine × Zebu population of likely East African origin that traces back to the twelfth century (Hanotte 2002; Magnier et al. 2021).
Physical characteristics: The animals have thoracic humps and are short-horned. The hump is large and pyramidal. Some animals, especially in the west of the island, do have long horns. The coat colour of the Madagascar Zebu cattle is very much a result of active selection by different tribes for particular colours and patterns. Indeed, there are 140 words in the Malagasy language that describe these variations (Felius 1995).
Adaptive and special genetic characteristics: Madagascar Zebu is considered to be well-adapted to the conditions on the islands where it is found. In particular, they are generally regarded as more resistant to heat stress and tick-borne diseases than imported European breeds, such as African Zebu and N’Dama breeds.
The Malawi Zebu
The Malawi Zebu are found throughout Malawi and are the dominant cattle breed in Malawi, constituting the largest proportion of the 800,000-strong national cattle herd. They are generally similar to the Angoni of Zambia. However, because its hump is more cervico-thoracic and it has larger ears and less developed dewlap (similar to the Nguni), it is considered to have some Sanga blood, from the opportunistic interbreeding with the Nguni Sanga inhabiting the same area. Consequently, the populations in central and southern Malawi are slightly different in conformation from the other Angoni. This has led to the classification of the Malawi Zebu into North Malawi Angoni and South Malawi Angoni (Felius 1995).
Herds of Madagascar and Malawi Zebu breeds are shown in Fig. 4.7a, b, respectively.
(a) A herd of Madagascar Zebu. (Courtesy: Dr. Maria da Gloria Taela). (b) A herd of Malawi Zebu. (Courtesy: Dr. Patricia Mayuni)
Baria Cattle
The Baria cattle are found in the western region of Madagascar in the Plateau de Bemaraha. It is a small, wild, and free-roaming population. They have not been sufficiently characterized, and their origin is uncertain. They have been referred to in different reports as Sanga, Zebu, and Taurine. However, the Madagascar official reports consistently classify the Baria as Zebu. Their limited use and neglect have caused a decline in the population of the breed. With a population estimated at about 500, the breed is considered critically endangered (Rege 1999).
4.1.3 West and Central African Zebu
Most of the West and Central African Zebu cattle are reared in the Sahel belt, which serves as a geographic and ecoclimatic bridge between the Sahel and the Savannah and Forest belts (Ouedraogo et al. 2021). They have historically inhabited the dry savannah and Sahelian zones, while the taurine (humpless) breeds have been widely distributed across the moist savannah and sub-humid coastal forest belts (Rege and Tawah 1999). The latter zones are infested with tsetse flies, which are the vectors of Nagana or trypanosomosis in cattle. However, the distribution of these populations has been shifting towards the coastal belt because of frequent droughts and insecurity in the Sahel. Consequently, many pastoralists have migrated with their animals into the humid and sub-humid areas (Boutrais 2007; Traore et al. 2015) where their animals have interbred with the humpless cattle. This crossbreeding between the Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle has resulted in a new group called the West African (Pseudo) Sanga cattle (e.g. Borgou, Djakore, Ketekou, Ghana Sanga, and Pabli) (Sect. 4.2.3).
Rege (1999) classified the West and Central African Zebu cattle into the Gudali (represented by the Adamawa, Sokoto, and Ngaoundere Gudali) and the Fulani (represented by the lyre-shaped White Fulani and the long lyre-shaped Red M’bororo types, the Awazak, the Shuwa, and the Maure). Table 4.2 summarizes the West and Central African Zebu cattle breeds.
The Zebu of West and Central Africa are raised in a range of production systems—from on-station (intensive, mostly research stations) and ranches (public or privately owned) to the majority, which are on-farm mostly extensive, including pastoral and agropastoral production systems. The extensive system is dominant and primarily comprises smallholder producers with indigenous cattle as their dominant stock because of their adaptability to the prevailing ecological conditions. These animals contribute to the economies of this sub-region in significant ways in terms of food, income, employment, culture, and ecosystem stability. The two types, Shorthorns and Longhorns, are described in the sections below.
4.1.3.1 West and Central African Shorthorn Zebu Cattle
The West and Central African Shorthorn Zebus are similar in origin, physical appearance, and conformation to the East African and Indo-Pakistan Shorthorn Zebus (Payne 1970). They are classified as being among the Sahelian Zebu breeds that are believed to have descended from the Indo-Pakistan Zebu, which entered the Horn of Africa by way of the Persian Gulf and south Arabia. The Arabian invaders spread the Zebu to the south and west over the continent from 669 BC (DAGRIS 2022).
Grouped under this category are the Azawak (found in Mali, Niger, and Nigeria), Djelli (Niger), Gudali (Cameroon and Nigeria), Maure (Mali, Mauritania, and Senegal), Tuareg (Mali), and Shuwa (Cameroon, Chad, and Nigeria). According to Gates (1952), these breeds have a common ancestry. They are known for their physical endurance that gives them the ability to survive in arid and semi-arid conditions. For example, the Gudali cattle are heavy and stocky animals that exhibit effective adaptability characteristics in both the humid and wet/dry and the arid conditions of the West and Central African sub-region. They are preferred for their meat production and draught power, while the White Fulani are preferred for both their milk and meat potential and trekking ability. The Shuwa cattle have similar endurance characteristics as well as high bodyweight at maturity (Rege and Tawah 1999) and are mainly reared for their dairy potential.
The Gudali Cattle
Classification, distribution, and population statistics: The Gudali cattle represents a large group of Shorthorn Zebus in West and Central Africa and comprises the Adamawa, Ngaoundere, and Sokoto subgroups, which are found principally in Cameroon, Nigeria, and the Central African Republic, with a small population in Ghana (Rege and Tawah 1999; Tawah and Rege 1996b). They are traditionally reared by Fulani and Hausa pastoralists. Gudali is a Hausa word for ‘short-horned and short-legged animals’. It is generally used to embrace a large group of Shorthorn Zebus, which are also referred to as Fulbe or Peuhl Zebu in West and Central Africa. Different names are used to designate these cattle populations (Table 4.2). These names are either based on their place of origin (e.g. Adamawa Gudali, Banyo Gudali, Ngaoundere Gudali, Sokoto Gudali, and Yola Gudali) or the owning tribe (e.g. Fulani Gudali, Fulbe Gudali, Peul, and Poulfoulo). In some cases, however, their dominant coat colour markings are used to designate them. For example, Tattabareji, a Fulani word for speckled coat colour, is used to refer to the Yola Gudali.
The Adamawa Gudali is primarily found in the Adamawa mountain ranges stretching from Nigeria to Cameroon. There are two sub-types: the Banyo or Boyo type found in the Banyo and Bamenda highland regions of Cameroon and the Mambilla highland regions of Nigeria (Taraba State) often have a white face and red eye patches or a red and white combination and, often, patches on their heads (Fig. 4.8a, b), and the Yola type are red, black, and white, often in patches. The Banyo type has rather large horns because of either Bunaji or Rahaji introgression (which one specifically is uncertain), while the Yola Gudali is considered to have a Muturu admixture (Gates 1952), and it has progressively been diluted since the 1950s, such that the Yola type is no longer recognized as a distinct variety by local herders (Blench 1999). Both the Kanuri and Fulani pastoralists in Nigeria own the Adamawa Gudali cattle. It is rare for these pastoralists to have herds of only Adamawa Gudali; they are often mixed with the Bunaji, Rahaji, and Wadara cattle (Blench 1999).
(a) Typical Banyo Gudali cow and calf and (b) mature bull at Sabga, Cameroon, portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed. (Courtesy: Dr. Eveline M. Ibeagha-Awemu). (c) Sokoto Gudali bull (Nigeria). (Courtesy: Dr. Eveline M. Ibeagha-Awemu). (d) Typical Ngaoundere Gudali cow and calf and (e) bull (Cameroon). (Courtesy: Dr. Eveline M. Ibeagha-Awemu)
The Sokoto Gudali is commonly found in Nigeria, although small populations are also found in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Niger, and Northern Benin (Tawah and Rege 1996b). The population in Ghana is about 10,000, and most of them have been used for crossbreeding with the Ghana Shorthorn. In Nigeria, the breed used to be mainly found in the north-western region but is now widely distributed across the country. About 90% of the Sokoto Gudali are owned and managed by Fulani and Hausa pastoralists and transhumant herders, who graze their cattle on communally owned grazing lands and browse especially in the dry season (Tawah and Rege 1996b).
The Ngaoundere Gudali is mainly found in the Adamawa region of Cameroon, with some populations also in the Central African Republic.
Accurate estimates of the population sizes of the various Gudali breeds/strains are not available because of their frequent movements inside and outside their ecological zones and the overlap in their ecotypes. However, the population of the Sokoto Gudali has previously been estimated at about 4.35 million in Nigeria, the Banyo Gudali at about 140,000 in Cameroon, the Ngaoundere Gudali at about one million in Cameroon and 400,000 in the Central African Republic, and the Adamawa Gudali at about three million in Cameroon and Nigeria (Rege 1999; Tawah and Rege 1996b).
Physical characteristics: Tawah and Rege (1996b) have described the physical characteristics of the different types of Gudali cattle. They are similar in conformation, size, and origin to the Large East African Shorthorn Zebu and closely resemble the Boran and Kenana cattle (Sect. 4.1.1).
The Adamawa Gudali resemble the White Fulani (Bunaji) in conformation and are medium- to large-sized, with medium-length, thick, and crescent-shaped horns. Their large and pendulous hump is the main characteristic that differentiates them from the White Fulani. The coat colour varies from pied, white, black, and brownish yellow to red and white, black and white, and grey with brown spots. They have a well-developed dewlap and a short-to-long and narrow head and muzzle.
The Sokoto Gudali have long and broad ears, well-developed humps, and a pronounced sheath in the male (Fig. 4.8c). The hump is thoracic in position. Horns are short and almost absent in males but tend to be longer in females. There are large variations in coat colour in the breed. The most common coat colour is black and white with a light underside. However, uniform cream, light grey, or dun is also frequent. Colour variations exist and include grey and white or light dun with dark shading over the head, neck, and shoulders. The tail switch is black. The head is long and wide between the eyes and across the forehead, with a straight or slightly convex facial profile. Their dewlaps and skin folds are highly developed. The hair is short, and the skin is thick and pigmented. Ears are long, large, and convex, sometimes pendulous, although not to the same degree as in some of the Indo-Pakistan Zebus such as the Sahiwal.
The Ngaoundere Gudali are mostly reddish brown with white markings on the underside and sides; brindle and roan animals are also frequent, as well as spotted reddish individuals in white and brown coats (Fig. 4.8d, e). The dewlap, sheath, and umbilical folds are poorly to moderately developed. The horns are short-to-medium in length and crescent-shaped. The hump of the Ngaoundere Gudali is very large and pendulous, generally hanging over on one side and having the appearance of being broken.
Height at withers for males is 133–136 cm for Ngaoundere Gudali, 122 cm for Yola Gudali, and 130–137 cm for Sokoto Gudali, while for females, it is 123 cm for Ngaoundere Gudali and 117–131 cm for Sokoto Gudali. Heart girth for males is 190–194 cm for Ngaoundere Gudali and 190 cm for Sokoto Gudali, while for females, it is about 170 cm for Ngaoundere Gudali and 144–166 cm for Sokoto Gudali. Body length for males is 158–179 cm for Ngaoundere Gudali, 88 cm for Yola Gudali, and about 154 cm for Sokoto Gudali, while for females, it is 145 cm for Ngaoundere Gudali, 76 cm for Yola Gudali, and 124–145 cm for Sokoto Gudali. Despite the differences in conformation and other physical features, what the Gudali group has in common includes the long, well-balanced, and relatively compact, deep, and wide body and well-sprung ribs. They have deeper bodies than the White Fulani and present a close-to-the-ground appearance.
Production systems, husbandry practices, and production characteristics: Gudali cattle are raised under different traditional husbandry practices in different habitats and production systems. These include communal grazing and short- and long-distance transhumance pastoral systems. Long-distance transhumance occurs in the dry season when herders move southwards in search of pasture and water. When the rains return, there is a reverse movement while ensuring that the tsetse-infested and flooded areas are avoided. During transhumance, lactating cows are left with the offspring in the homestead and cared for semi-intensively (grass and occasional concentrates offered in addition to field grazing). Other than the castration of unwanted bulls, which is a common practice, breeding is generally uncontrolled. The Gudali are also raised in ranches, on research stations, and on government-owned farms in the sub-region. The ranches may be state-owned or privately owned.
As alluded to above, Gudali cattle are heavy and stocky animals. They are well-known for their meat and milk qualities (Yakubu et al. 2010) and for their draught power. They are used for ploughing and carting because of their sturdiness and docility despite their slow and sluggish nature. Bullocks are usually out to work at 3 or 4 years of age. Gudali cattle have been shown to respond well to intensive feeding (Lhoste and Dumas 1972; Olayiwole et al. 1981) and are, thus, believed to be the most promising beef animals in the sub-region (Leclercq 1976; Olutogun 1976; Pagot 1985).
Tawah and Rege (1996b) and Rege (1999) have reported large variations in weight at maturity between and within the Gudali sub-types as follows: male mature weights are 400–563 kg for Ngaoundere Gudali, 400–408 kg for Banyo Gudali, 495–660 kg for Sokoto Gudali, and 350–352 kg for Adamawa Gudali. Female mature weights are 330–408 kg for Ngaoundere Gudali, 360–363 kg for Banyo Gudali, 240–355 kg for Sokoto Gudali, and 335–336 kg for Yola Gudali. Mature weights of oxen (castrated bulls) are 350–499 for Ngaoundere Gudali, 453 kg for Banyo Gudali, and 509–662 kg for Sokoto Gudali. Management practices are important contributors to the differences in mature weights. The Adamawa Gudali is considered a multipurpose breed, used as a draught animal and for beef and milk production. It fattens easily on grazing and is very docile. They respond easily to the use as draught animals and, for this reason, are favoured by locals for ploughing. However, when they become too large to pull a plough effectively, they are fattened and sold as meat animals (Babayemi et al. 2014).
Gudali cattle are also good milkers; the udders in the female are well-developed with good teats, and hence, they are regarded as an indigenous dairy breed. The lactation length for the milking cows is about 228 days, with a daily milk yield averaging about 7.5 kg. Sokoto Gudali cows produce an average of 1500 kg of milk per lactation. They produce more milk than White Fulani cows under similar research station conditions (Alphonsus et al. 2012). The age at first calving ranges from 38.6 to 49.5 months, and the calving interval ranges from 360 to 537 days (Tawah and Rege 1996b). The long interval between calvings is because of the ovarian inactivity in the post-partum period, coupled with high rates of abortions and stillbirths (ranging from 4.7% to 5.9%) in the breed.
Adaptive and special genetic characteristics: Gudali cattle exhibit adaptability to both humid, wet, dry, and arid conditions and are also known for their hardiness in the arid environments in the north. Sokoto Gudali are reputed for browsing, and herds are usually seen lopping trees towards the end of the dry season (RIM 1992). Buvanendran et al. (1992) reported rectal temperatures of 38–39 °C and 38.5–39.1 °C, respiration rates of 19.9–38.3, and 24.9–42.6 flank movements per minute, respectively, for Sokoto Gudali in the cool and hot seasons in Nigeria. Using these values, corresponding coefficients of adaptability to heat stress for these animals were estimated at 1.77–2.69 and 2.09–2.87. A higher value of this coefficient indicates poor adaptability to heat stress. Also recorded was a sweating rate of 54.7–93.3 and 170.8–224.1 g per m2 per hour. These results show that Sokoto Gudali cattle are less adapted to the conditions of the Guinea savannah than White Fulani cattle (Buvanendran et al. 1992; Ngere 1985).
Microsatellite, milk genes, and milk and blood protein polymorphism studies of the Zebu and taurine cattle of Western and Eastern Africa (Braend and Khanna 1968; Braend 1971; Queval et al. 1971; Ibeagha-Awemu et al. 2004) have revealed that the Gudali and other Zebu breeds in the region may share the same evolutionary history with the Indo-Pakistan and Eastern African Zebus. Similarly, there is evidence that the Zebu cattle are distinct from the Shorthorn and Longhorn Taurine cattle of West and Central Africa (Ibeagha-Awemu et al. 2004). The Y chromosome is acrocentric in these Zebus and sub-metacentric in the taurine Baoulé and N’Dama cattle of West Africa and the European taurine breeds (Popescu 1980). Moreover, Braend and Khanna (1968) observed that blood factor Z’ is common in the Gudali and Fulani Zebus but absent in the Muturu and N’Dama cattle. Thus, there is a clear genetic distinction between the Taurine and Zebu cattle. These polymorphic systems can also be used as genetic markers for investigating the genetic relationships between these populations and their genetic purity.
The Wadara or Shuwa Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: The Wadara or Shuwa cattle are typical short-horned Zebu and are also known by various synonyms (Table 4.2). They are found throughout Chad (except the south-west), in north-eastern Nigeria, and in the extreme north region of Cameroon. The Wadara cattle in Nigeria are considered the indigenous cattle of Borno State and are often referred to as ‘our cattle’ by the Koyam, Shuwa, and related pastoralists. Wadara cattle are considered to have some humpless Shorthorn gene introgression, although they are phenotypically predominantly Zebu. They represent 6.6% of the Nigerian herd (RIM 1992). They are also frequently referred to as ‘Shuwa’ in the literature, after the Shuwa Arabs who also keep them. A related breed, known as Ambala, is found throughout the Lake Chad region. The Ambala are said to often migrate into Nigeria from Chad. Their population is estimated at 4.55 million (Rege 1999).
Physical characteristics: The Wadara are small but well-muscled, medium-sized, lightly to deeply built animals with rounded ribs. Their coat colour is usually dark red or plain red, black, pied or brown, and sometimes, black and patchy. They are short-horned and have a small erect hump. Their height at withers is 135–140 cm in males and 125–128 cm in females (Rege 1999). The Ambala have a white coat or are dappled. Figure 4.9 shows mature male and female Wadara (Shuwa) cattle portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
Wadara or Shuwa cattle: a bull and a herd
Production characteristics and uses: The Wadara are good dairy animals, with milk yields of 450–1820 kg in a 240–370-day lactation period. Consequently, like the Kenana and Butana cattle of eastern Africa, they are mainly reared for their dairy potential (Belemsaga et al. 2005; Kubkomawa 2017). Mature weights are 350–475 kg for males and 250–300 kg for females (Rege 1999). These animals are also used for riding and as pack animals. The Ambala ecotype is a large-sized animal and has a much larger mature weight of about 800 kg.
Adaptive characteristics: The Wadara have similar endurance characteristics to the other members of the Shorthorn Bos indicus family of the West and Central African Zebu population (Rege and Tawah 1999).
The Azawak Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: Azawak cattle are indigenous to the Azaouak region situated at the borders between Niger and Mali. Azaouak means sandy land without any vegetation in Tamajeq. Azawak cattle are raised by nomadic Tuareg and Arab inhabitants of the Azaouak valley, which is a vast, windy depression, stretching 3°–7° E longitude and 15°–20° N latitude and covering the arid eastern Mali and extending from the Niger River through southern Niger to parts of northern Nigeria. A small population of Azawak cattle is found in Nigeria throughout the year and constitutes about 0.7% of the national herd, while the majority are seasonally transhumant. They are generally found on the border to the North and West of Sokoto and North-West of Borgu. They are also dotted along the frontier from Sokoto to Katsina (Meghen et al. 1999). Azawak cattle are also referred to by different synonyms (Table 4.2). They are the most important cattle population in Niger, representing about 33% of the national cattle herd, and are found throughout the country. They are also found in Benin, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, and Chad. Their overall population is estimated at about 506,000 (Rege 1999). They have been used in crossbreeding with the Sudanese Fulani Zebu in Burkina Faso.
Physical characteristics: The Azawak are lightly built, average in size, stocky-shaped, and compact and are, therefore, suitable for beef production. Their coat colour is usually a mixture of red and white, black and white, fawn with white patches, or fawn red. On traditional farms, white, grey, and black are common, while on experiment stations, mahogany is common. The Azawak cattle in the Niger Republic are commonly red, while those found in Nigeria are usually light fawn, though they can also be white, brown, pied, and black. The dewlap is well-developed. The hump is large and narrow (12–16 cm thick). They have medium-length horns, which are short and thick at the base in males and lyre-shaped in females. Ears are 21 cm long in cows. The skin is flaccid with average thickness. The height at withers for males is 120–135 cm, and for females, it is 110–130 cm (Rege 1999). Figure 4.10 shows mature male and female Azawak cattle portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
Azawak cattle in Niger. (Courtesy: Larry W. Harms, Virginia)
Production characteristics and uses: The Azawak are suitable for beef and draught. The average mature bodyweight of males is 350–500 kg and 250–410 kg for females in traditional systems (Rege 1999). However, males can attain mature weights of up to 600 kg on-station. They are early-maturing and aesthetic animals. Birthweight averages 23–24 kg for males and 21–22 kg for females. Carcass yield ranges from 48 to 52%. Their daily milk yield averages 1.5 kg over an average lactation length of 290 days (Traore et al. 2015), but they are able to produce between 5 and 15 litres of milk daily under favourable conditions. The age at first calving ranges from 35 to 40 months, with a calving rate of 70–75% and a calving interval of 11–13 months. Their average mature weight of 345 kg and high carcass yield account for the breed’s suitability for meat production. Azawak cattle have been under selection at the Toukounous Sahelian Experiment Station in the Republic of Niger since the 1950s.
Adaptive characteristics: The Azawak are hardy and well-adapted to drought conditions and the general harsh climatic conditions of Niger and the surrounding environments. They have similar tolerance and endurance qualities as the Maure cattle. Their physical endurance, coupled with their ability to walk long distances, makes them highly suitable for pastoral farming (Traore et al. 2015).
The Maure Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: Maure cattle, also known as Moorish cattle and other synonyms (Table 4.2), are found in the Sahel region of Mauritania and the adjoining regions of Mali. They are owned by nomadic Arabs and Berbers. The humps are more prominent in the eastern part of their distribution range, suggesting possible Fulani influence. These animals are also in Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, and Senegal. Their population is estimated at about 673,000 (Rege 1999).
Physical characteristics: The coat colour of the Maure is fawn, red, or black in plain or patchy pattern. However, the most common coat colour is black or black and white, although dark red coats are common in the east. The Maure cattle are loosely built and tend to be leggier than the Azawak cattle. The height at withers ranges from 125 to 140 cm in males and from 110 to 130 cm in females (Rege 1999). Figure 4.11 shows a mature Maure cow portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
Maure cattle. (Courtesy: Dr. Larry W. Harms, Virginia)
Production characteristics and uses: Maure cattle have a large and stocky body size, making them suitable for beef production. Their mature bodyweight is about 250–700 kg for males and 250–350 kg for females (Rege 1999). Cows are valued for their milk yield, which averages between 471 and 650 kg over a lactation period of between 210 and 270 days. Milk yield per day is about 8.0 kg at peak lactation. They are also used as pack and riding animals.
Adaptive characteristics: Maure cattle have a strong muscular body, which makes them suitable for draught power (Penda et al. 2014). They also show a high tolerance for high temperatures and low-humidity conditions and, hence, their preference by farmers in the arid parts of Mali. Moreover, they are adaptable to varying temperatures and are, thus, able to survive in the high humidity conditions of Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal (Santoze and Gicheha 2019).
4.1.3.2 West and Central African Longhorn Zebu
The longhorn Bos indicus–type of the West and Central African Zebu cattle, also known as the Fulani type, includes the Gobra, White Fulani, Red Fulani, and Djelli cattle. Their origins are not known. Tawah and Rege (1996a) have summarized existing theories about their genetic constitution, including evidence suggesting that they are an admixture of Bos taurus and Bos indicus ancestry. This theory is supported by a report of more than 7% African taurine and more than 10% European taurine genetic influence in the White Fulani and Red Fulani populations of Cameroon and Nigeria, based on the data on 225 alleles at 28 loci (Ibeagha-Awemu et al. 2004). Indeed, while the Fulani people are thought to be conservative pastoralists, their livestock management practices suggest that they do cross and change cattle breeds to adapt to new ecological or sociopolitical conditions (Boutrais 2007).
The Fulani cattle are a unique group in West and Central Africa, which differ from the typical Shorthorn Zebu of Central, Eastern, and West Africa by the presence of long horns and from the cervico-thoracic-humped Sanga cattle by the presence of a thoracic, or sometimes, intermediate hump. The Fulani family has been classified into two subgroups: the lyre-horned subgroup consisting of the Gobra (Senegalese Fulani), the Sudanese Fulani, and the White Fulani, also known as Bunaji in Nigeria and Akou in Cameroon, and the long lyre-horned subgroup represented principally by the Red Fulani, also known as Rahaji in Nigeria (Payne 1970; Mason 1988). Rege and Tawah (1999) have described the Djelli (or Diali) as a strain of the Fulani family found on the floodplains and adjacent valleys of the Niger River in the Niger Republic and south-west Nigeria. Blench (1999) described the Djelli as exotic to Nigeria. Recent reports show that the Fulani cattle are characterized by a high degree of genetic diversity (Ibeagha-Awemu et al. 2004; Ibeagha-Awemu and Erhardt 2006; Nourezzine et al. 2019). Moreover, there is a high genetic connectedness between the Red and White Fulani (Ibeagha-Awemu and Erhardt 2006) as well as the Kuri cattle (Epstein 1971). Individual members of the Fulani family are described in the following paragraphs.
The Gobra Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: The Gobra is the dominant breed in the Sahelian belt of Mali and Senegal and in the adjoining regions of Mauritania. They are referred to as the Toronke Cattle in Mali. Their population is estimated at about 1.3 million (Rege 1999). The Gobra cattle are also known by different names such as the Senegalese Fulani, Senegal Zebu, or Toronke (Table 4.2).
Physical characteristics: Gobra cattle have either lyre-shaped or crescent-shaped horns, which are sometimes loose and can reach 70–80 cm in length. Their dewlap is well-developed. Their hump is prominent, especially in the adult males. They have thick and loose skin. Most of the cattle are grey with dark patches, but animals with white backs and black speckles are not uncommon. The Gobra and White Fulani cattle are predominantly white in coat colour and are much larger than the Sudanese Fulani, whose coat colour is quite variable but usually spotted light grey. The Gobra cattle have an average height at withers of 130–144 cm for males and 124–140 cm for females. They have a heart girth of 171 cm and a body length of between 70 and 127 cm. Figure 4.12 shows mature male and female Gobra Zebu cattle portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
Gobra cattle. (Courtesy: Dr. Larry W. Harms Virginia)
Production characteristics and uses: Gobra cattle possess an average weight at maturity of between 300 and 578 kg for males and between 250 and 450 kg for females (Rege 1999). Sexual dimorphism is marked between males and females, with significant differences. The age at first calving is about 44.8 months, and the interval between calvings is about 15.5 months. They are mainly kept for meat production because of their high mature bodyweight, but they can also produce about 675 kg of milk over a 330-day lactation period (Missohou et al. 1997). The bulls and oxen are used for riding and as pack animals.
Adaptive characteristics: Because of their physical endurance in the arid and semi-arid conditions, Gobra cattle are preferred in pastoral production systems.
The White Fulani Cattle
Fulani is the Hausa word for the pastoral peoples of Nigeria belonging to the ‘Fulbe’ migratory ethnic group. Pastoralism, as a livelihood, is coming under increased pressure across Africa, including among the Fulbe owners of Fulani cattle, due to changing socio-economic and environmental conditions. In the past (especially, the 1950s and earlier), there was a symbiotic relationship between pastoralists (practising transhumance) and the more sedentary crop farmers. During the dry season, pastoralists migrated to the pasture-rich areas with minimal cropping in the southern parts of the Guinea savannah zone. During the rainy seasons, pastoralists would migrate away from the tsetse-infested forest areas towards the northern Sudan savannah zone, supplying dairy products to the local farming community and avoiding trypanosomosis. The farming community supplied pastoralists with grain, and after the harvest, cattle were permitted to graze on crop residues in the fields, leaving behind valuable manure and the fields ready for the next cropping season.
Today, population pressure has resulted in deforestation and increased settlement in the Guinea savannah and rainforest regions. At the same time, the control of tsetse and trypanosomosis has enabled cattle and crop farmers to inhabit these zones all year round. This has increased the competition for resources, including land, with grazing areas and transhumance routes coming under pressure and crop land being increasingly limited. With pastoralists having limited or no rights to land, there are intense conflicts when livestock damage crops. The situation is getting worse with climate change and its impacts on the reliability of rains and, hence, the availability and access to water and pasture.
Distribution and population statistics: The White Fulani cattle are the most numerous and widespread of all the Nigerian cattle breeds, representing about 37.2% of the national cattle population (FDLPCS 1992; Alphonsus et al. 2012; Kubkomawa 2017), and are distributed in an area stretching from the South-western states, across the middle belt to Sokoto, Katsina, and Kano states. In Cameroon, where their distribution stretches from the Adamawa, Far North, to the North-west Regions of the country, they represent 33% of the national cattle herd and are only second to the Red Fulani (Tawah and Rege 1996a; Messine et al. 1995), and in Ghana, the White Fulani constitute about 80% of all Ghanaian Zebus (Aboagye 1995). They are also represented in small populations in the Benin Republic, Chad, Niger Republic, and Sudan. They are known by different names (Table 4.2) and are found in both tsetse and non-tsetse-infested agro-ecological zones of West and Central Africa. The population of the breed is estimated at about 9.67 million (Rege 1999).
Physical characteristics: The White Fulani are medium-to-large-sized animals with a well-balanced body of good depth and width. Height at withers is 130–152 cm for adult males and 118–138 cm for adult females. Heart girth is 193 cm for males and 145–161 cm for females, while body length is 152 cm for males and 117–137 cm for females. They are of good length and have a marked slope from the hook to the pin bones, which tend to be narrow in some animals. The barrel is well-sprung and of good capacity, and the top line is strong and slopes gently from the hump to a somewhat high sacrum. The hump is well-developed in the males than in the females and sometimes tends to hang over at the back in the former, like that of the Gudali. The hump is either thoracically or cervico-thoracically placed on the backline and is musculo-fatty. The tail is thin and long, with the tail switch almost touching the ground. The White Fulani have light and hard bones and a well-developed and large dewlap, especially in the bulls. The head is long and of good proportion and is straight or slightly dished (concave). The neck is strong and deep, providing an upright carriage for the head. Figure 4.13 shows mature male and female White Fulani cattle portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
White Fulani bull (a) and cow and calf (b). (Courtesy: Dr. E. M. Ibeagha-Awemu)
The White Fulani have lyre-shaped horns, which are slender, well-proportioned, and of medium-to-long length, measuring about 80–107 cm. The horns are round in cross section and are curved outwards and upwards immediately above the head. Most of the White Fulani animals have horns with an outward twist at the tips, giving them the characteristic lyre shape. The ears are of medium size, erect, and set horizontally, with the inner parts having black points showing to the front. The udders are well-developed and of good shape and are strongly attached, and the teats are well-positioned and are of medium-to-large size.
White Fulani cattle have a predominantly white coat colour on a black skin with black ears, eyes, muzzle, hooves, horn tips, and tail tip. There are a few cases with black coat colour mixed with dark patches or red and white coat colours. Sometimes, red marks can be found on the ears, feet, and sides. Black flecking on the sides and limbs is quite common, while red markings are frequent. In some cases, variations in coat colour include combinations of black and white on a black skin or red and white on a white skin (Ogunsiji 1974). The skin is loose and pigmented with soft hair.
Production characteristics and uses: The White Fulani cattle are predominantly found in the tropical climate characterized by two well-defined seasons—the wet and dry seasons—and two prevailing wind systems—the south-west rain-bearing wind from the Gulf of Guinea and the dry north-easterly dust-laden wind (the harmattan). The vegetation varies from closed forest in the derived savannah to light forest and open woodlands in the Guinea savannah. Most trees in the Guinea savannah are fire-tolerant, and the major grass species have been described by (Tawah and Rege 1996a), with Hyparrhenia spp. being the most common. Luxuriant growth of many tall grasses, such as the Gamba grass (Andropogon tectorum and A. gayanus) and Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), is characteristic of the derived and Guinea savannah zones.
The White Fulani are well-known for their dual-purpose characteristics and are mainly reared for their beef and dairy production (Rege and Tawah 1999). Their traditional owners rear them primarily for milk. Their dairy potential is much better than that of most Zebu cattle in the region but comparable to that of the Kenana cattle in Sudan (Osman 1984). White Fulani are also good beef animals and fatten quite well in feed-lots and on natural pastures. Indeed, much of the beef consumed throughout Nigeria is from the White Fulani (Payne and Wilson 1999; Alphonsus et al. 2012). White Fulani bulls are good draught animals by virtue of their docility, tractability, conformation, and body size.
White Fulani cattle attain mature bodyweights of between 425 and 665 kg for males and between 250 and 380 kg for females in improved systems. Mature weight for females in traditional systems has been reported at 270–310 kg. Birthweights average between 18 and 20 kg in traditional systems and between 21 and 24 kg in improved systems. They reach sexual maturity late and have long intervals between calvings and short lactation lengths compared to the Sokoto Gudali (Kubkomawa 2017). The milk yield varies considerably from 720 to 2950 kg for a variable lactation length of between 196 and 427 days (Mrode 1988). The age at first calving ranges from 26 to 45 months, but in Fulani pastoralist herds, it can be as late as 60 months (Aganga et al. 1986).
Adaptive and special genetic characteristics: The White Fulani cattle are tolerant of intestinal helminths and are more resistant to dermatophilosis than the Muturu and N’Dama cattle (Nwufoh and Amakiri 1981). They are also known for their genetic predisposition for hardiness, heat tolerance, and adaptation to local conditions (Alphonsus et al. 2012). For example (Amakiri and Mordi 1975), reported that White Fulani cattle are more heat-tolerant than N’Dama and Sokoto Gudali in Nigeria, which is reflected in their low respiration rate and heat tolerance index. White Fulani cattle tend to pant and salivate less under heat stress (Buvanendran et al. 1992) and sweat much more profusely than Gudali, N’Dama, and Muturu cattle when exposed to similar high ambient temperatures (Amakiri and Onwuka 1980). Igono and Aliu (1982) described the White Fulani as the least stressed animal in the hot climates of Nigeria. They are superior to all the other breeds of Zebu in resisting diseases, with the ability to thrive under a variety of conditions (Blench 1993; Meghen et al. 1999). Their leggy appearance, which is from the shallowness of their body and lack of width, has been associated with their ability to trek long distances (Oyenuga 1967; Capitaine 1972). This attribute has been described as an adaptation to their nomadic lifestyle.
The Red Fulani Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: The Red Fulani cattle, also known by other names (Table 4.2), including Rahaji in Nigeria, are predominantly found in the arid and semi-arid regions of West and Central Africa. They are distinguished by their chestnut-to-deep mahogany coat colour and are the most striking of the Fulani family. They are found in northern Cameroon, southern Niger, and central and northern Nigeria. They are specific to the Bororo Fulani people of Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria.
The Red Fulani is the second most numerous of the cattle populations in Nigeria, representing about 22% of the national herd, and the most numerous of the cattle populations in Cameroon, representing about 37% of the national herd (FDLPCS 1992; Messine et al. 1995). They are mainly located in the Far Northern States of Nigeria, although they are significantly absent in Borno State, where the Wadara cattle are predominant, and in the Adamawa, Far North, North, and North-west Regions of Cameroon. The Fulani pastoralists consider the Red Fulani as an extremely prestigious breed, and they are well-liked because of their beautiful appearance, high intelligence, and obedience to commands. Rege (1999) reported an estimated population of 4.92 million.
Physical characteristics: The Red Fulani cattle is one of the largest breeds in size (second only to the Kuri) in the region. They are distinguished by their deep burgundy-coloured coat and pendulous ears and horns that are gigantic—long (up to 63 cm) and thick. The hump is thoracically or cervico-thoracically located, well-developed, muscular in structure, and generally pyramidal in shape. Their dewlap, umbilical folds, and sheath are highly developed. Figure 4.14 shows Red Fulani cattle herds portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
Red Fulani herd (a) and bull (b). (Courtesy: Dr. E. M. Ibeagha-Awemu)
Production characteristics: The mature weight of the Red Fulani is between 400 and 450 kg for males and between 255 and 410 kg for females (Rege 1999). Their age at first calving ranges from 48 to 53 months, with the calving interval averaging between 537 and 585 days. The average milk yield per lactation has been estimated at 900 kg. In Cameroon, the daily milk production has been reported to range from one to two litres per cow, with a lactation length of 140–180 days (IRZ 1987).
Adaptive characteristics: The Red Fulani cattle are adapted to the arid and semi-arid regions and are susceptible to diseases in the humid areas (such as trypanosomosis) and poor nutrition. They are raised in conditions of low rainfall (3–5 months of rain, followed by a long dry season). They graze well on mature grasses, shrubs, and tree leaves and are well-noted for their herd instincts, walking gait, and ability to trek long distances (Mason 1996). They are also able to withstand heat, ticks, and insect bites.
The Sudanese Fulani Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: The Sudanese Fulani cattle, also known by other names (Table 4.2), are similar in origin to the Gobra of Senegal, with which they merge in transition zones. The Sudanese Fulani cattle are mainly owned by the nomadic Fulani people who occupy the belt between the Sahara and the coastal rainforest zones from the west of River Senegal to the east of Lake Chad, including parts of western Senegal, southern Mauritania, in and around the floodplains of Niger, Chad, northern Nigeria, and Cameroon (Rege and Tawah 1999). They are said to interbreed with the Azawak cattle in eastern Mali during seasonal migrations. The breed is found all over southern and south-western Mali, along the floodplains of the Niger River from Segon to Timbuktu. They are also found in Senegal. In both Senegal and Mali, they are known as the Toronke cattle. In Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire, interbreeding with the humpless cattle is common. Sudanese Fulani have an estimated population of about 5.62 million (Rege 1999).
Physical characteristics: The horns of Sudanese Fulani cattle are either lyre-shaped or crescent-shaped in appearance. Most have grey coat colours with dark patches, but animals with white backs and black speckles are also common. The height at withers ranges from 120 to 138 cm in males, and from 115 to 126 cm in females (Rege 1999). The Sudanese Fulani cattle are usually spotted light grey, although quite variable in coat colour. Figure 4.15 shows mature Sudanese Fulani cattle portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
Sudanese Fulani cattle. (Courtesy: ILRI)
Production systems, husbandry practices, and production characteristics: The major habitat of the Sudanese Fulani, the Niger delta, is in the semi-arid zone and has rainfall ranging from 200 to 600 mm per annum. The vegetation is strongly influenced by the annual flooding of River Niger. The floodplain pastures consist mostly of tall grass formations, which give way to rain-fed shrubland and browse trees in areas characterized by late and irregular floods. The vegetation varies according to the flood regime and consists of high-quality bourgou pastures (Echinochloa stagnina) and perennial Gramineae, such as Vetiveria nigritiana, Andropogon gayanus, and Oryza longistaminata.
The herds begin transhumance with the first rains in July, moving from the dry delta to the Sahelian uplands in the north-west, where they remain from August to October, grazing rain-fed pastures (Wagenaar et al. 1986). They return to the delta in November/December when the flood has subsided and follow its withdrawal to the north until the next rains. Due to the sharp climatic contrasts between the single rainy season of 2–4 months and the long dry season, there are large seasonal variations in the quantity and quality of the range resources available in the Sahel.
Birthweights of 17 and 21 kg have been reported in the Sudanese Fulani herds in traditional systems and on the ranch, respectively. The corresponding weaning weights were 55 and 79 kg. Mature weights are between 280 and 345 kg for males and between 248 and 300 kg for females (Rege 1999). Live bodyweight of cows of 1–2 years of age has been reported at 210 kg, and the bodyweight of mature animals over 6 years old reached up to 500 kg, with an average of 384.7 kg (Hamza et al. 2021).
Adaptive characteristics: The Sudanese Fulani cattle are able to trek long distances of up to 300 km in search of grazing and water and are adapted to the arid and semi-arid conditions.
The Djelli Cattle
Origin, distribution, and population statistics: The origins of the Djelli cattle, also known by different names (Table 4.2), are contentious. Some believe that they were derived from the Dwarf West African Shorthorn, primarily a cross between the Shorthorn Zebu and Bos taurus. It is postulated that the Djelli cattle have a stronger Bos taurus ancestry (genetic background) than any other West African Zebu cattle. They are found in the river basin of Niger, throughout north-eastern Burkina Faso, the south-west corner of Niger, the neighbouring areas of northern Benin, north-western Nigeria around Lake Chad, and Cameroon. However, they are predominantly found in Niger, mainly in pastoral systems (Rege and Tawah 1999).
Physical characteristics: Djelli cattle are of medium build with lyre-shaped horns. They have short, slender limbs. Their chest is full and deep. Neckline and shoulders are short, while dewlap and hump are very marked. The back dips slightly behind the hump and the waistline is nicely rounded. The skin is supple and slightly thin. The head is long and has medium lyre-shaped horns. The coat colour is black and white in a speckled or patchy pattern, although the dominant colour is white. Some animals have piebald coats (i.e. dirty white with black spots). The Djelli cattle population in Nigeria has been influenced by its neighbouring Sokoto Gudali cattle because of the seasonal migrations of Fulani pastoralists. Figure 4.16 shows mature male and female Djelli cattle portraying the typical physical characteristics of the breed.
Djelli cattle. (Courtesy Dr. Larry W. Harms, Virginia)
Production characteristics: They are used primarily for meat and animal traction and have good fattening capacity. They have a mature bodyweight of 300 kg and a height at withers of between 115 and 130 cm. The carcass yield ranges from 48 to 50%. The cows produce about 2–3 litres of milk per day on average.
Adaptive characteristics: Like the other members of the Fulani family, the Djelli cattle are believed to be highly tolerant of diseases and exhibit cross-environmental adaptability. They are known to be able to survive in the arid and semi-arid conditions in Niger and its surroundings.
4.2 The Sanga Cattle
The original African cattle are divided into two major categories, namely humpless (Bos taurus) and humped (Bos indicus) (Chap. 3). The latter category is subdivided into Zebu proper and Zebu crossbred types. The Sanga is an intermediate type of cattle, which is a cross between Bos taurus and Bos indicus. Sanga, an Ethiopian word meaning ‘bull’ or ‘ox’, relates to the origin and centre of dispersal of this group of cattle breeds (DAGRIS 2022). One school of thought about the origin of the Sanga posits that the Sanga likely evolved in Ethiopia from the interbreeding between the original longhorn humpless cattle with cervico-thoracic-humped (Zebu). These cattle were then spread southwards by Hamitic (Bantu) tribes migrating from north-eastern Africa about 600 years ago (Rege and Tawah 1999) into western and southern Uganda and to Rwanda-Burundi and adjacent areas, including the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo. This theory is buttressed by the fact that food production and the keeping of cattle seem to have begun in the highland and Rift Valley regions of East Africa in the first millennium and have derived from peoples who were probably southern Kushites from Ethiopia.
The Sanga are humped, but the hump is cervico-thoracic rather than thoracic. The Sanga is nowadays considered a separate group of cattle. There are 30 Sanga cattle breeds and strains on the African continent. They are discussed here by geographical regions—eastern, southern, western, and central Africa. Rege (1999) categorized the Sanga of eastern Africa into three groups: Nilotic Sanga of Sudan and Ethiopia, the Abyssinian Sanga of Ethiopia and Eritrea, and the Ankole group of Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. The Sanga cattle in southern Africa are classified into six clusters, namely, the Shona of Zimbabwe, the Nguni group of Angola and Zambia, the Ovambo, the Setswana group, and the Afrikaner group of Southern Africa. Table 4.3 summarizes the classification of the present-day Sanga breeds/strains of eastern Africa and southern Africa. The following sections summarize the Sanga of eastern, southern, and West Africa.
4.2.1 The Sanga of Eastern Africa
The Abyssinian Group of Sanga Cattle
The Danakil and Raya Azebo cattle breeds are known members of this group.
Distribution and population statistics: The Danakil (also known as Adal, Afar, or Keriyu) cattle are kept by the Afar people of north-eastern Ethiopia in the steppe and semi-desert areas of the Afar region of Ethiopia, south-eastern part of Eritrea (along the southern Red Sea coast), and northern part of Djibouti. The Danakil depression—which the breed is named after—lies in the central part of the distribution area. The breed has also spread along the Awash River to parts of the Western Hararghe and Eastern Shewa zones. The related breed known as Raya Azebo is kept by the adjacent Raya and Keriyu tribes in Eastern Shoa, South Wollo, and Western Hararghe. The population of the Danakil has been estimated at 680,500 (DAD-IS 2005).
Physical characteristics: The Danakil cattle have a straight profile; long, thin legs; and long horns, which measure 1 metre or more in length and are lyre- or crescent-shaped. In some cases, the two horns loop to form a complete circle. The animals have a straight back but with a sloping rump. Their average height at withers is 125–145 cm in males and 120–125 cm in females. Danakil humps are small and cervico-thoracic, and the dewlaps are small. The navel flap and preputial sheath are also small. Hind legs are bowed with weak hocks and thin thighs. Their coat colour is usually ash grey, cream, or light chestnut. Figure 4.17 presents pictures of typical Danakil and Raya Azebo cattle.
A Danakil cow and a Raya Azebo herd. (Courtesy: AGTR, ILRI)
Production characteristics: The Danakil cattle are kept for milk, meat, and work but mainly for milk production. Male animals weigh 250–380 kg, while females weigh 200–305 kg. Their meat is very fibrous. Their milk production averages 200–300 kg in a lactation period of 160–225 days.
Adaptive or special genetic characteristics: The Danakil are able to cope with extended periods of drought. They are browsers and are able to walk long distances in search of the few scattered patches of coarse grasses that may be available during these periods.
The Ankole Group
Distribution and population statistics: These cattle are found in eastern and central Africa and comprise the Bahima, Bashi, Kigezi, Nsagalla, Ruzizi, and Watusi (FAO 2010). Ankole cattle are generally classified in the wider group of the Sanga cattle. It is considered that Ankole cattle, with their characteristic long horns, further evolved from the original Sanga around the present-day Uganda, developing further into the local strains/sub-populations (Felius 1995). This position is also supported by Banyankole mythology that Ankole cattle were domesticated in their current location by the Bachwezi, a semi-mythical people (Infield 2003). The central and eastern African ‘Ankole cattle region’ is also generally referred to as the inter-lacustrine or Great Lakes region, as it is bordered by Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Albert, George, Kivu, and Tanganyika. The Bahima and Nsagalla strains are considered by some to be the same and should not be separated (Bett et al. 2013). These strain names were derived from the tribal names of their traditional owners. The Bahima are kept by the Bahima race of the Banyankole tribe of Uganda, the Kigezi are kept by the Banyakigezi/Bakiga tribe, the Bashi are kept by the Bashi people in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Watusi are reared by the Tutsi people of Rwanda. A particular lineage of the Watusi called Inyambo is descended from the Tutsi kings who ruled the Rwanda-Urundi kingdom and is currently reared in Eastern and Northern Rwanda. The Ruzizi is found in the Ruzizi Valley between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Kivu. In Uganda, the Ankole is the prevalent type of cattle, found in the western, central, and south-western parts of the country (Nakimbugwe and Muchunguzi 2003). The multiplicity of strains notwithstanding, the Ankole are mainly owned by the Bahima pastoral communities (Kajura 2001) in the districts that form the Ankole region (Lamwaka 2006) and other districts of the cattle corridor.
Physical characteristics: Ankole cattle typically have a rusty dark red coat colour, but dun and black coat colours are not uncommon. The coat colour is usually solid, but they can also be spotted or speckled. Both males and females have large horns, which spread up to 2.4 metres long and are considered the largest horns of any cattle in the world. The body is of medium size, the neck is relatively short, and the legs are weak.
Production characteristics and uses: The Ankole is used for meat and milk production, draught power, and many cultural functions such as funerals, weddings, or religious sacrifices (Infield 2003; Kugonza et al. 2011). Cows have excellent maternal abilities. Ankole meat has low fat content compared to that of other breeds in the region and specialized beef breeds. The skin was traditionally used for making cultural regalia like drums, stools, sandals, and clothing. Indeed, the Ankole cattle hold a central role in the culture and lives of the Bahima (Bonte 1991; Schoenbrun 1993), and their economic contribution is critical to the livelihoods of these communities (Infield 2002). The height of mature animals ranges from 165 to 198 cm. Birthweights range from 4.7 to 6.8 kg. Mature males weigh 450–720 kg, and females weigh 405–540 kg. Milk yield is about 500 litres over a 240-day lactation period (DAGRIS 2022). At 7%, the butterfat content of Ankole milk is quite high. In areas of land scarcity (Burundi, Rwanda, and western Uganda), a clear trend from pure Ankole cattle towards crossbred animals can be observed, and recent studies (Wurzinger et al. 2006; Kugonza et al. 2011) show that these cattle are increasingly under threat from crossbreeding with taurine breeds.
Adaptive or special genetic characteristics: The Ankole are hardy and efficient grazers, with the ability to thrive on rough forage. An attribute commonly mentioned by Ankole keepers is their (general) disease resistance.
Ankole were first introduced to the United States in the 1960s from a small seed stock in European zoos. Today, fewer than 1000 purebred Ankole animals are registered in the United States. Figure 4.18 shows typical Ankole animals with their characteristic horns.
Ankole bull and herd showing their characteristic lyre horns. (Courtesy: Dr. Donald Kugonza)
The Nilotic Group
This group is composed of the Abigar, Aliab Dinka, Aweil Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk cattle breeds.
The Abigar
Distribution and population statistics: The home of Abigar cattle is the lowlands of south-west Ethiopia, around the border with Sudan, along the White Nile, in the area covering the Akobo area of Gambella. It is considered a sub-type of the Nuer cattle (Rege 1999) and is reared and maintained by the Nuer tribes of Gambella Regional State. Abigar is the dominant cattle type in the region and plays a major role in the sociocultural and economic life of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities that depend on it. The breed has a population of 548,600 heads.
Physical characteristics: The Abigar cattle possess a wide array of coat colour patterns, with white/cream being the most dominant. Mean heart girth circumference is 142.5 cm in females and 148.9 cm in males, and the height at withers is 114 and 118.3 cm, respectively. Figure 4.19 shows an Abigar and a herd.
An Abigar bull and a herd of Abigar cattle. (Courtesy: AGTR, ILRI)
Production characteristics and uses: Abigar cattle are mainly reared for milk and meat and as a source of farm power. The daily milk offtake per cow is 1.3–3 litres (Minuye et al. 2018), the mean lactation length is 8–9 months, and the lifetime calf crop production is 7.4–10 calves (Mureja 2002). The breed is the major source of milk and milk products for the people in the Gambella Region. The average age at puberty has been reported to be 36.2 months, while the age at first calving and calving interval were 42.5 and 14.1 months, respectively, under extensive management (Minuye et al. 2018). Overall, the breed is a productive breed, considering its harsh environment—disease prevalence and frequent droughts—and the extensive management. Abigar animals are docile and easy to handle.
Adaptive or special genetic characteristics: Abigar is known for its tolerance to tsetse fly challenge, high heat load, and periodic flooding.
The Aliab Dinka breed is found in south-east Sudan and the Aweil Dinka—the smaller-sized of the two—in the north-west territory of Sudan (Rege 1999). The Aliab Dinka cattle are owned by a tribe of the same name—a subdivision of the Dinka people of South Sudan. They traditionally lived in an area west of the upper White Nile River. The cattle have white, grey, or light fawn coat colours, large bodies, long horns, and small cervico-thoracic humps.
The Shilluk breed neighbours with the other strains and is more diffuse. These cattle are owned by the agro-pastoralist, Nilotic-speaking Shilluk people, who form part of the larger Luo ethnic group of South Sudan. They live on both banks of River Nile, around the city of Malakal, and between Lake No in the south and Kosti in the north, extending on the east bank of the Nile as far as Anakdier in the east. The area has flat-lying plains with moderate rainfall. Vegetation is made up of thick, tall grass and a few trees and shrubs.
4.2.2 The Sanga of Southern Africa
This group of Sanga cattle is further subdivided into six breed clusters or groups, namely, the Shona subgroup, the Nguni cluster, the Zambia/Angola cluster, the Ovambo and south-western cluster, the Setswana group, and the Afrikaner group. The Afrikaner group has only one breed, the Afrikaner breed, which is located primarily in South Africa with a population of 302,000 heads.
The Shona cluster is made of the Mashona cattle breed that is mostly reared in east and central Zimbabwe and estimated at 500,000 heads. The mature weight for Mashona bulls ranges between 350 and 635 kg, while that of mature cows has been estimated at 260–410 kg (Rege 1999) and 275–350 kg (Khombe 2002). The median calving interval of Mashona cows is 548 days (Hall 1998). The cattle are reared for meat and as work animals. The dominant coat colour is black, with secondary colours, including red and various shades of brown. Generally, these cattle are closely related to the other Sanga in the sub-region—that is, Nkone, Tuli, and Nguni (Khombe 2002).
The Nguni cluster: The Nguni group of cattle is considered by some as the ‘true Sanga cattle of southern Africa’, historically owned by the Bantu (the Nguni people represent a south-eastern Bantu people) on the coast. These cattle descended from the original Sanga that were introduced into southern Africa when the Khoikhoi (Hottentots) and their Sanga cattle first crossed the Zambezi River about 700 AD. The Nguni cattle in South Africa and the Kingdom of Eswatini number about 2.2 million heads. The Nguni cluster is made of four breeds or strains, namely Landim, Nguni, Nkone, Pedi, and Shangan. The Nguni cattle have a mean weight in male cattle of 400–680 kg and 225–450 kg in females. The cattle are reared for meat, milk, and work (Rege 1999).
The ‘Landim’ strain is found in the eastern part of the Kingdom of Eswatini and the Zululand territory of South Africa. In Mozambique, the Landim cattle are kept in areas of the plains of Gaza, in the Inhambane coastal area, and in Maputo Province. Small herds are also found on the northern shores of the Limpopo River near Zimbabwe, where they interbreed with the Mashona cattle (Alberro 1983). These cattle survive on marginal land and are tolerant of local diseases and adapted to a hot environment. Landim cattle have a wide array of coat colours and patterns but stand out as black, white, dark brown, brown, and white (Kotze et al. 2000). The breed is threatened by extensive crossbreeding and replacement with exotic cattle (Bessa et al. 2009). A Landim herd and a heifer are shown in Fig. 4.20, while a typical Nguni bull and cow are shown in Fig. 4.21.
A Landim cattle herd and a heifer in Mozambique. (Courtesy: Maria da Gloria Taela)
A typical Nguni bull (a) and a cow with a calf (b). (AGTR, ILRI)
The Zambia/Angola cluster includes the Tonga (Zambia) and Porto Amboim (Namibia), while another cluster called the ‘Ovambo and south-western cluster’ includes the Ovambo, Kaokoveld, Okavango, and Caprivi strains; all of Namibia; and the Humbi strain found in Angola.
The Tonga
Distribution and ecological settings: The Tonga breed is found in the Southern Province of Zambia, on the Zambezi Plateau, between the Kafue and Zambezi rivers and Northern Zimbabwe, and the valley areas surrounding Lake Kariba. The Tonga breed is named after its owners, the Bantu-speaking Tonga people who inhabit the southern portion of Zambia (and the neighbouring areas of northern Zimbabwe and Botswana). Estimated at more than one million in the early twenty-first century, the Tonga people are concentrated along the Zambezi Escarpment and along the shores of Lake Kariba.
Butonga, the core Tonga area, lies between 16° and 18° S and between 26° and 29° E and is bounded on the north by the Kafue and Sanyati rivers, in Zambia and Zimbabwe, respectively, and on the south by the Zambezi and Gwai rivers. It includes the southern Zambian plateau, which rises to more than 1000 metres above sea level. The Middle Zambezi Valley is known as Gwembe Valley. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 cm on the escarpment to 40 cm in northern Gwembe Valley. Drought years are frequent, and rains are expected to start by mid-November, tapering off through March to April, as the cold, dry season sets in. Light frost may be experienced in the June–July period, before the hot, dry season sets in abruptly about late August, with temperatures that can reach 45 °C in northern Gwembe.
The Tonga cattle breed is believed to have been in Zambia even before the Bantu migration from East Africa. Due to the continuous interbreeding with exotic breeds, the original Tonga breed is now concentrated around the valleys of the Zambezi River, where the conditions are unfavourable for the other breeds of cattle (Mwaanga and Parés-Casanova 2017). The breed is made up of a mixture of various ecotypes found in different districts of the province. Because of this variation, Tonga is yet to be registered as a distinct breed with the Herd Book Society of Zambia. Due to its adaptability to the local environment, the Tonga breed is widely used in crossbreeding with exotic breeds to produce crossbred beef and dairy animals. The habitat of the Tonga is no longer limited to the Southern Province of Zambia. It has continued to migrate northwards as the Tonga people move in search of new farming areas. This represents a major threat for the breed through the uptake of commercial cattle breeding, interbreeding with other cattle populations in their new locations, and the impact of East Coast fever in the province. As more people acquire high-producing exotic bulls at the expense of local Tonga bulls that are deemed inferior, the indigenous Tonga is gradually being replaced through upgrading. Rege (1999) reported a population estimate of Tonga cattle at 993,000.
Physical characteristics: The differences between the ecotypes found in the different districts make the breed quite heterogeneous phenotypically. Generally, Tonga cattle have a small body size and short-to-medium-sized horns that spread outwards from the head (Musimuko 2014). The coat colour is variable, ranging from pure black to white, but brown tends to dominate in most herds, especially those found on the plateau areas of Sinazongwe and Maamba. The ecotypes found in the valleys tend to be relatively larger than those found on the plateau. One ecotype found on the shores of Lake Kariba in Kalomo District is locally referred to as the Mazambezi and is considerably larger than the upland strains. A herd of Tonga cattle is shown in Fig. 4.22.
A herd of Tonga cattle. (Courtesy: DAGRIS, ILRI)
Uses and production characteristics: The Tonga is mostly kept for meat, although, as is common among pastoral communities, the Tonga people will rarely slaughter an animal for food or sale unless there is a funeral or wedding in the family. Because of its small body stature, the Tonga breed is not well-adapted as a work animal. However, nearly all farmsteads have a set of working animals that are used for ploughing and the transportation of produce to and from markets.
Adaptive or special genetic characteristics: Due to its adaptability to the local production environment, the breed is widely used in crossbreeding with exotic breeds to produce crossbred beef and milk animals.
The members of the Setswana group are the Barotse, Damara (Herero), Tswana, and the Tuli cattle. These are summarized below.
The Barotse Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: The homeland of the Barotse cattle is Barotseland of the West Province of Zambia and the Kalahari and Namib Deserts in the neighbouring Angola, Namibia, and Botswana. The territory is characterized by the floodplain of the Zambezi, extending into Angola on the west. The breed is kept principally by the Lozi people living on the Zambezi floodplain and is also known as Lozi, Rowzi, Rozi, or Baila. The Barotse population appears to have expanded after the rinderpest epidemic (Felius 1995). There are a number of strains of the Barotse from the various districts: the Shang’ombo strain—more closely related to populations in Angola—tends to be relatively larger than the Kalabo and Lukulu types. The Barotse population has been estimated at 793,000 (Rege 1999), and the population in Zambia has been estimated to be less than 100,000 (DAD-IS 2005). The majority of this breed is found in Angola. High mortality caused by contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and the effects of indiscriminate crossbreeding and drought are the major risk factors for the breed.
Physical characteristics: The Barotse has typical Sanga conformation with long horns and legs; they are coarse-boned and have a large, long appearance due to their long legs (Felius 1995). The main distinguishing features of Barotse cattle include the large, long but relatively slender body frame with long lyre-shaped horns that spread and curve backwards (Musimuko 2014). Despite the large body frame, it is rare to see a fat, well-rounded Barotse animal.
The coat colours are usually brown, dark red, fawn, or black, sometimes mixed with white. White or brown patches on the sides and under the belly are not uncommon. Pure white colour has not been reported. The Barotse hump is small, often barely visible in the cow. The height at withers of mature male and female animals are 120–137 and 114–129 cm, respectively (Mason and Maule 1960). The hump is small in males and barely visible in cows. A herd of Barotse is shown in Fig. 4.23.
Production characteristics and uses: Barotse cattle are used as beef and milk animals, and the sour milk made from Barotse cow milk (the Muzilili) is known for its special taste and flavour. However, beef is the most important product. The animals are docile with good temperament, and hence, the bulls are good work animals. Under good management, they weigh between 485 kg (for females) and 700 kg (for bulls), compared to weights of 400 kg for females and 580 kg for males under average management. The age at first calving is about 44 months, while the lactation milk yield is 1077 litres in an average lactation length of 302 days. A conception rate of 67% and a calving interval of 620 days have been reported (Thorpe et al. 1981).
The Baila
There is debate on whether the Baila of the Kafue floodplains in the Southern Province of Zambia is a separate breed or not, and despite having distinct features, the Baila is generally considered to be an intermediate crossbreed between the Barotse and Tonga cattle breeds. It is not among the recognized breeds of cattle in Zambia. This could be because it only accounts for about 1% of the cattle population in the country (Kaluba 1984). They are mainly found along the Kafue floodplains in the Mumbwa and Namwala districts of Zambia. The animals have a relatively large bone frame. Their large horns are similar in shape but shorter than those of the Barotse breed and longer than those of Tonga. They have a clearly defined cervical hump. It is a meat breed. The animals have good heat tolerance and disease resistance abilities (Mwaanga and Parés-Casanova 2017).
Tswana or Setswana Cattle
Distribution and population statistics: It is considered that the Tswana people settled with their livestock in the Ngami region of Botswana early in the nineteenth century and that, over time, their cattle displaced the original Ngami cattle (Rege and Tawah 1999). Today, Botswana is the epicentre of the Setswana cattle, and the most typical Tswana cattle occur mainly in the north and north-west of Botswana in Ngamiland and along the Boteti River. Tswana-type cattle extend into the south-western Zimbabwe. In South Africa, they were originally found in the Northern Cape of Transvaal. The population of Tswana cattle in Botswana was reported at 1.4 million heads by Rege (1999). No estimate is available on the population size of the breed in South Africa and Namibia. The purity of the Tswana breed is declining due to crossbreeding with the Brahman and exotic (European) breeds (DAD-IS 2005). Other names used locally for the breed include Bechuana, BataWana, Mangwato, Sechuana, Seshaga, and Sengologa.
Physical characteristics: Today, the Tswana cattle are quite phenotypically heterogeneous. Typically, they have long, lyre-shaped horns, but dehorning is a common practice, especially on commercial farms. The Tswana are well-built and well-fleshed, with moderate to long legs. They are multicoloured with colour patterns of black, brown, grey, and white, the typical ones being red and red and white. A herd of Tswana cattle is shown in Fig. 4.24.
Production characteristics and uses: Tswana cattle are mainly used for beef, milk, and draught power. Their beef is considered to be of high quality. They are fertile, and the females are known for their ease of calving, and the quality of hides is good. Calving percentage is 70–81%. The average age at first calving is 36–48 months, and the calving interval is 18–24 months in traditional herds. The Tswana outperforms other South African breeds including Tuli and Afrikaner in growth traits, but the breed has lower growth rates than the Bonsmara and its crossbreeds. The mature weight of male animals is 310–520 kg and that of females is 290–420 kg (DAGRIS 2022). The average daily milk yield of a Tswana cow is 1.4 kg. They are used for crossbreeding with the exotic dairy and beef bulls for improved milk and meat production. Calf mortality is about 7.5%.
Adaptive or special genetic characteristics: The breed is known to have a high level of tick and heat tolerance and is adapted to dry and hot environments.
Damara or Herero Cattle
The Himba, a Herero-speaking people, settled during the sixteenth century in North-western Namibia with their Sanga cattle. Today, this area is known as Kaokoland. The Himba have a nomadic lifestyle and roam freely in search of water and grazing for their livestock. Although the Herero primarily reside in Namibia, there are also significant populations in Botswana and Angola. Not much has been done to document the unique characteristics of the Herero/Damara cattle that differentiate them from the neighbouring Sanga cattle.
The Tuli
Distribution and population statistics: Originally called the Amabowe cattle of Ngwato Setswana type in the south-west corner of Zimbabwe, an area stretching from Tuli to Plumtree, the rinderpest epidemic of 1896 reduced the number of these cattle substantially. Much of what was left was crossed with the Afrikaner cattle. Remnant herds of the original population were restricted in the Tuli area; hence, the present-day name of the breed. Today, the Tuli is distributed in several countries in the region, especially in the neighbouring Botswana and South Africa. It has been used in forming the synthetic breed Akouma in Gabon. It has also been exported from Zimbabwe to Australia, the United States, and Canada (Rege and Tawah 1999; Mpofu 2002). The Tuli cattle population in the national commercial herds is about 10,000 in Zimbabwe and 2339 in South Africa (DAD-IS 2005). There are seven stud farms in Zimbabwe, and excess bulls from these farms are used in many commercial farms in the country. There is no estimate available on the number of Tuli cattle held by smallholder producers. However, the existence of a breed society and sustained efforts to improve the breed and popularize it internationally have significantly reduced the chances that the breed could be endangered.
Physical characteristics: The Tuli is a medium-sized ‘pure African Sanga’ breed and is one of the few that has benefitted from organized breeding: The Tuli breed society was formed in 1961, and several stud breeders are operational in Zimbabwe (Mpofu 2002). The Tuli is a heavy-boned animal with long, wide, spreading horns and long, strong legs. The coat colour is mostly red, red and white, and golden brown. The Tuli have been selected for their golden brown colour and with selection preference for polled animals, and selection against shyness and poor breeding. A Tuli herd and bull are shown in Fig. 4.25.
Production characteristics: The Tuli breed are characterized by a high calving percentage of 70.6%, mortality between birth to 2 years estimated at 7.5%, and a weight at 18 months of age of 284 kg. The Tuli cattle are good beef animals. Weights at birth, at 90 days old, at weaning, at the age of 18 months, and at 5.5 years were 31.9 kg, 105.8 kg, 189.7 kg, 284.1 kg, and 411.1 kg, respectively (Ward and Tawonezvi 1983).
Adaptive or special genetic characteristics: Today’s Tuli cattle are characterized by high fertility, early maturity, hardiness, adaptability, ease of calving, good mothering ability, good carcass characteristics, and docility (Assan 2011).
The Afrikaner
Distribution and population statistics: The Afrikaner cattle are believed to have been brought to the present-day South Africa by the Khoikhoi people during the first century AD. The Hottentots owned large herds of Sanga-type cattle when the Dutch established the Cape Colony in 1652. The oxen drew the wagons, which carried Boer farmers and families on the Great Trek of 1835–1836 from the Cape of Good Hope to the Orange Free State, Natal, and the Transvaal to escape British rule. The present-day breed was developed from these original Hottentot cattle in Cape Province. Today, the breed is the most popular indigenous breed in South Africa (Maule 1990), being bred throughout the country, the main ones being North-east Cape, Orange Free State, Transvaal, and West Natal. The Afrikaner cattle have been exported to several countries in and outside Africa, including Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Australia, and the United States (Rege and Tawah 1999).
Physical characteristics: The Afrikaner coat colour ranges from dark to light red. The hump is prominent but not large and is cervico-thoracic. The long spreading horns leave the head in a downward and backward direction and then, at maturity, bend gracefully forwards, upwards, and backwards. Through breeding, a polled type of Afrikaner has also been developed. Typical Afrikaner bulls are shown in Fig. 4.26.
Production characteristics and uses: The breed was developed as a draught animal (or trek ox), and it is only in the past half century or so that its beef potential has been exploited. It is among the largest breeds in Africa, with birthweights of male animals being about 33 kg. Adult bulls weigh 450–950 kg, with an average of 745 kg, and adult cows weigh 360–555 kg (average 525 kg). Weights of up to 1100 kg have been recorded in show animals (Rege and Tawah 1999). The age at first calving is about 36 months, and the calving interval is about 445 days. Calving percentages are highly variable and are lower than those of other indigenous breeds, e.g. Tswana, Tuli, Angoni, and Mashona.
Adaptive and special genetic characteristics: The legs of the Afrikaner are slightly sickle-shaped. The animals have good resistance to tick-borne diseases and are well-adapted to the local hot, arid conditions: the sweat glands in their skin are reportedly more active than those of taurine cattle, and this makes them more tolerant of heat than the European breeds.
4.2.3 The Pseudo-Sanga of West Africa
A distinction must be made between the general cattle group ‘Sanga’, which is used to mean the long-term, established Zebu × Taurine derivatives represented by several breeds in eastern and southern Africa (Sects. 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 above) and the more recent West African Zebu × Taurine crossbreeds described in this section. Even though we have classified the West African recently stabilized Zebu × Taurine crosses as Sanga here, to avoid attendant confusion, the use of pseudo-Sanga in reference to the more recent Zebu × humpless crossbred populations is advised. Pseudo-Sanga is used to connote two things: the first is to emphasize the heterogeneity of the genotype compositions of these populations, which are constantly changing as the crossbreeding processes continue, and the second is to distinguish these dynamically evolving populations from the Sanga of eastern and southern Africa, which are more stabilized and some of which are registered as unique, commercial breeds. Table 4.4 summarizes the breeds/strains of the present-day pseudo-Sanga cattle populations of West Africa, indicating the parental breeds from which they were (and are being) derived, and the countries with major populations of the breeds/strains (Rege 1999). The major groups/clusters of the pseudo-Sanga of West Africa are described below.
The Evolving Pseudo-Sanga Strains
The Sanga of West Africa include the Borgou, Méré, Ghana Sanga, and Keteku (or Borgu). Earlier reports (e.g. (Doutressoulle 1947; Flamigni 1951)) used the term Borgu to refer to all forms of humpless × Zebu cattle crossbreeds in this region. In reference to crossbreeds of this type (Doutressoulle 1947), stated that ‘…these same animals are encountered in the corresponding regions of the neighbouring Togo, Nigeria, Ivory Coast (Méré-Lobi), with small differences due to environment and selection’. The same report states that the Borgu is known by different names such as Borgowa, Kettije, Ketaku, Keteku, Ketari, and Kaiama. Epstein (1971) states that ‘... the general conformation of the body as well as the occasional occurrence of relatively long horns in the Borgu indicate the influence of White Fulani and possibly N’Dama Longhorn blood’ and that ‘... in Western Nigeria, this type of cattle, called Keteku, is derived from a mixture of the humpless Dwarf Muturu of the south and the Zebu of the north’.
The definition of Keteku has become more problematic in recent years, with an increasing proportion of Zebu blood in ‘Keteku’ herds. As Fulani pastoral herds push even further south and increasingly inhabit regions previously restricted to trypanotolerant stock, more Zebu stock are brought into these herds from village Zebu herds. For example, the ‘Biu’, a Zebu × Savannah Muturu cross found near Biu in southern Borno (e.g. (Gates 1952)), has effectively become submerged in the local Zebu gene pool. Thus, the application of the name Keteku to an individual animal may reflect as much the owner’s cultural background as its actual genetic composition. The population size of Keteku in Nigeria was 180,000 heads (ILCA 1979a). Keteku are significantly less common than previously thought, and their distribution is quite different. It is unlikely that there are as many as 100,000 of all types. The distribution and productivity of Keteku cattle have been studied in more detail (Blench et al. 1998).
Epstein (1971) also recognizes the Biu of the Bornu State of Nigeria as a type similar to the Borgu but smaller. Gates (1952) states that the Biu is the result of White Fulani crossbreeding with the humpless Dwarf Shorthorn. Mason (1988) and Maule (1990) recognize the Biu as a distinct breed; however, Mason (1988) and ILCA (1979a) observed that the Biu has been absorbed by Zebu. The general consensus is that the Biu, when it existed, differed from the Keteku as it is known today: the Keteku is a broader mixture of Zebu (mainly White Fulani) crosses with N’Dama and/or Shorthorns, while the Biu was more specifically defined as a cross derived from White Fulani and Dwarf Muturu. Reference has also been made to the characteristic long horns and white with black colour markings of the Biu (Epstein 1971; ILCA 1979a). Today, large numbers of Keteku are found in Kwara State of Nigeria, where they are thought to be an extension of the Borgou population of Benin.
ILCA (1979b) points out the difficulty of identifying a standard type of the Borgou breed in Togo since all intermediate types between the humpless breeds and Zebu are commonly grouped under this name. However, the same report defines the Borgou in Benin as a cross between Zebu (mainly White Fulani) and West African Shorthorn (Somba or Lagune). The Méré, like the Togolese Borgou, refers to a whole range of crossbreeds between Zebu and humpless breeds (including the N’Dama) in both Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire. In Burkina Faso, the Méré is found mainly in a belt from the west to the east, including Bobo Dioulasso and Koudougou, which widens parallel to the southern border, south of Koupela and Fada N’Gourma. In Côte d’Ivoire, there is little information about the Méré crossbreeds or their numbers, although crossbreeding is extensively practised in the North. Figure 4.27 shows a typical Keteku cattle herd.
The Ghana Sanga is a cross between Zebu and Ghana Shorthorn. The Zebu breed involved is commonly White Fulani, but occasionally, Sokoto Gudali is used. Similarly, the N’Dama occasionally replaces the Ghana Shorthorn in the cross. The term is also used to include similar crosses involving the Dwarf Shorthorn. The Ghana Sanga resembles the Shorthorn type more closely than it does the Zebu, but, like the Zebu, it is found in the drier areas of the country towards the northern border and on the Accra Plains, extending into the Volta Region.
In addition to the above stabilized crosses, there are other Zebu × Taurine (mostly N’Dama) crosses in the region. These include the Djakore or Djokore of Senegal, Bambara (also known as Méré) of Mali, and various gradations of Zebu × N’Dama crosses in Guinea, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, The Gambia, and Gabon. In the Central African Republic, these crosses are also called Bambara. Maule (1990) defines the Bambara as a ‘variety of N’Dama with Zebu blood’. Other than in Mali and the Central African Republic, the name Borgou is widely used to refer to various strains of Zebu × humpless crossbreeds in French-speaking countries. In Ghana (Sanga) and Nigeria (Keteku and Biu), more specific names are used. In all cases, however, care needs to be taken to ensure that, as much as possible, a population (‘breed’ or ‘strain’) in question is accurately defined in terms of its composition and location.
Production systems: As alluded to above, there are four broad types of Zebu × Taurine (mostly Shorthorn) crossbreeds: the Méré in Côte d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso, the Ghana Sanga in Ghana, the Borgou in Togo and Benin, and the Keteku (or Borgu) in Nigeria. The common environment of these populations is the intermediate Sudanian zone between the Zebu-dominated north and the tsetse-infested south, which provides the greatest opportunity for interbreeding between the two groups. This is an important agricultural area, producing groundnuts, cotton, and sorghum. Farming is intensive, and the livestock density has traditionally been high. Livestock are confined to fallow land or areas unsuitable for cultivation during the rainy season. In the dry season, animals are left to graze freely, and crop residues, mainly cereal straws and groundnut haulms, make important contributions to their diet. Fodder is not usually grown, but there is an abundance of groundnut stalks and standing hay. When the cattle owners or herders are Fulani, the animals are managed in a similar way to any Fulani herd. Draught animals are widely used to pull carts and ploughs in many of these areas, such as Sine Salown in Senegal, southern Mali, southern Burkina Faso, and the province of Borgou in Benin. Cattle are also used for manuring fields by letting animals feed on crop residues in the field. In some areas, animals are tethered in the fields. Herds are often large, and the proportion of males in the herds is high (28–32%).
Physical characteristics: These populations, being unstabilized crosses in which the injection of new genetics continues, exhibit considerable variations in size, conformation, and colour markings. The Keteku and the Borgou are generally very similar, although their sizes usually vary with the amount of Zebu breeding. In Nigeria, for example, the Keteku is larger and taller in the northern Guinea savannah than it is in the southern Guinea savannah. Likewise, in Benin, the Borgou varies in size from the small ‘true’ Borgou of the south to the large Borgou–Zebu of the north. In body conformation, the Keteku is of fair depth, although it is inclined to lack width at the chest and to be flat over the ribs. The Borgou has an elliptic and compact body with a straight profile, while the Ghana Sanga and Borgou–Zebu have similar conformations as that of the Zebu (Domingo 1976). The head of the Keteku is generally well-proportioned, straight, and ‘dished’ in profile, while that of the Ghana Sanga has a long, straight, and convex profile. The head of the Borgou is generally triangular and thick at the extremities, but it is long with a flat forehead among the small Borgou. Horns are of medium length in the Méré, but in the Ghana Sanga, they are long and U-shaped, as in the Bunaji. The necks of both the Borgou and Ghana Sanga are short and sturdy. The neck of the Borgou is thick and robust in the males and skinny in the females, and the neck of the small Borgou is very muscular around the shoulders as well. The top line in the Keteku slopes up to the sacrum, with the rump tending to slope steeply between the hooks and the pin bones. The top line of the Borgou is generally not straight, and the rump is short. The top line of the small Borgou is straight, with a long and narrow back. In contrast, the back of the Ghana Sanga is short and concave, like that of the Borgou–Zebu, with an elevated rump. The hump is rudimentary and usually inconspicuous in these populations. It is cervically positioned in the Keteku, but with increasing White Fulani breeding, the hump tends to be larger and cervico-thoracically positioned. The dewlap and umbilical folds are retracted and poorly developed in the Keteku, although they are better developed in the Borgou–Zebu, depending on the degree of Zebu breeding. The chest of the Borgou is particularly deep in the males, and it is very solid in the Borgou–Zebu, which has a short and robust body. The hindquarters of the Keteku are poorly developed, with the thighs lacking in width and fullness, although it has a broad hip (40 cm in males and 39 cm in females). The tail-head is set high, and the legs are averagely long, with light and fine bones. The small Borgou has short legs, and the females have well-developed udders. Coats are similar in colour markings and patterns in the Keteku, Borgou, and Ghana Sanga, but considerable variation exists within each of these populations, with pure white being the dominant colour, while black is the most common in the Ghana Sanga and white with black spots and black markings in the Keteku and Borgou. Solid black or black and white or spotted grey or fawn coats are also evident in the Borgou. A variety of other colours, including black, black and white, faded red, red and white, or blue tinge, also exist in the Keteku. Méré cattle have mostly typical pure black coats, although black and white or brown and white coats are also common.
Adaptive and special genetic characteristics: The Keteku is more susceptible to trypanosomosis and dermatophilosis than the N’Dama and the Muturu in the same locality, but, like the Ghana Shorthorn, it is more tolerant than the White Fulani or the Gudali. Borgou cattle, like the Keteku, are adapted to the harsh conditions of production and are tolerant of trypanosomosis. Some studies (e.g. Doko (1993) and Dehoux and Hounsou-Ve (1993)) have demonstrated that the Borgou has trypanotolerant attributes that are similar to those of the Lagune and N’Dama but with a higher degree of within-breed variation.
Production characteristics: Birthweights of Borgou calves are slightly lower than those of the Keteku under ranch conditions. Birthweights of the Méré calves on-station in Burkina Faso have averaged 18 and 17 kg, respectively, in males and females. Corresponding weights at weaning (about 8 months of age) have averaged 128 and 112 kg. The Keteku cattle raised on a ranch in Nigeria with heavy tsetse challenge had a higher growth performance than the Borgou cattle raised on a ranch in Benin with light tsetse challenge. This points to a greater tolerance to trypanosomosis of Keteku than Borgou cattle. Mature weights have also varied considerably across breed types. Typical mature weights have ranged from 190 to 280 kg for the Borgou cattle in Benin, from 295 to 330 kg for the Keteku cattle in Nigeria, and from 260 kg for the Méré cattle in Côte d’Ivoire to 320 kg for the Ghana Sanga cattle (ILCA 1979a). In these systems with limited animal recording, the considerable variation in mature weights may reflect the lack of knowledge of precise age at maturity. However, in general, these stabilized crosses are heavier at maturity than their humpless parental stock but lighter than their humped parental stock. The age at first calving in the Borgou cattle in Benin has ranged from 43 months in sedentary village herds to 46 months in transhumant herds, averaging 43.5 months, and has varied from 38 to 47 months for the Keteku cattle under ranch conditions in Nigeria and from 48 to 60 months for the Méré cattle under village conditions in Burkina Faso. The mean calving intervals for the Borgou cattle in Benin have ranged from 15 months under sedentary husbandry to 18 months under transhumant husbandry and averaged 16 months. Corresponding figures for the fecundity rate were 64 and 67 per cent, with an average of 65 per cent. Surprisingly, reproductive performances under these different systems of production reported in the literature have tended to be quite similar, which does not support the suggestion by Wilson (1988) that transhumant herds are relatively better nourished and, therefore, are expected to perform better than sedentary herds. The mean calving intervals have varied from 15 to 20 months in Borgou cattle and from 18 to 24 months in Méré cattle under village conditions. For Keteku cattle, they have ranged from 16 to 19 months under ranch conditions. The calving rate in the Borgou cattle in Benin has ranged from 33 to 75 per cent under ranching management at M’Betecoucou, a location characterized by light tsetse challenge (ILCA 1979a, b; Lopez 1985), and from 40 to 67 per cent under village conditions (Dehoux and Hounsou-Ve 1993). These differences may partly be the result of variations in the levels of trypanosomosis challenge. The bimodal calving frequency in village herds in Benin (ILCA 1979b) is an indication that the breeding in Borgou herds is seasonal in character, which is a direct effect of nutrition on the fertility in traditional village herds. In addition (Dehoux and Hounsou-Ve 1993), reported that about 45 per cent of the Borgou herds in Benin have only one young breeding bull. Since young bulls can only breed 30 cows per year at most, the herd fertility is bound to suffer in these systems where herd sizes are large. Other factors contributing to the poor fertility of Borgou cows in the village herds in Benin are prolonged suckling, trypanosomosis, brucellosis, and other infectious diseases.
Population sizes: While this chapter does not put emphasis on the population sizes of the breeds covered, the dynamism in population sizes of West African cattle breeds, especially the rapid interbreeding between Zebu and Taurine types and the consequences of this, requires special mention. Population sizes and trends are discussed in Chap. 3. As pointed out in Sect. 3.4 of that chapter, the stabilized crosses require systematic characterization, with a focus on gathering both phenotype and genotype data on the production and adaptive traits of these new ‘breeds’ or ‘strains’ relative to those of the parental types, as part of a process to determine the attributes to define the end point of the envisioned new breeds and breeding plans towards genetic stabilization.
4.3 The Zenga Cattle
The ‘Zenga’, a term introduced by Rege (1999), refers to the cattle derived from the interbreeding between Sanga and Zebu cattle. The Zenga is heavier than the Zebu but lighter than the Sanga (Kajura 2001). Exclusively located in eastern Africa, some members are found in predominantly the Zebu habitat and others in the Sanga habitat. Indeed, the location of Zenga forms a natural division between the Zebu country in the north and the predominantly Sanga country in the south of the African continent. The members of the Zenga, a total of eight, are the Arado, Fogera, and Horro (of Ethiopia); Jiddu (southern Somalia); Alur, also called Nioka (Nyoka) or Blukwa cattle (the Democratic Republic of Congo), derived from crossing Ankole cattle with Small East African Zebu in the area (that is, Lugware and Nkedi); Nganda (Uganda); Sukuma (Tanzania); and Bovines of Tete (Mozambique). Table 4.5 presents a summary of the classification of the present-day Zenga breeds/strains of eastern Africa. They are briefly described below.
Arado Cattle
The Arado cattle are red- and black-coated and are small-bodied and hardy. They are the most common cattle variety in the north Ethiopian highlands, where the breed is reared mainly for draught power. Closely related to the Arado are the Abergele cattle, which are the smallest breed of north Ethiopia in the Abergele lowlands and at the south-western lower slopes of Dogu’a Tembien district. The Abergele ecotype is known for its adaptation to the hotter and drier lowlands, is tolerant of diseases and parasites, and can cope with feed shortages during long dry periods. Another closely related Zenga ecotype is the Begayt, which is currently being crossed with the Arado to increase the milk production of the Arado.
Fogera Cattle
The Fogera breed (Fig. 4.28) is found in the Fogera Plains, which lie to the east of Lake Tana, covering the area around the town of Woreta, between Bahir Dar and Gondar in Ethiopia. The area is a flat, open plain, across which the Rib River flows into Lake Tana, with the Gumera River forming the southern boundary. Among the typical characteristics of the Fogera cattle are the broad hooves, which allow it to move more easily in the marshes of the Fogera Plain. The breed is highly tolerant of heat stress and solar radiation and is also known for its tolerance to high altitudes, parasite and disease infestation, fly burden, wet soils, and swampy areas. The Fogera is considered at risk, and conservation interventions are being taken.
Fogera cow (a), bull (b), and a cow with a calf (c). (Source: Tesfa et al. (2022)) (attributed to ILRI)
Horro Cattle
Also known as Wallega or Wollega cattle, the habitat of the Horro breed (Fig. 4.29) is the Horro Guduru Welega Zone of western Ethiopia. The population of cattle in the Horro area was estimated to be around 47,700 heads in 2017 (Mekonnen et al. 2021). The breed is mainly used as a draught animal and for milk production. The Horro have a large body size, small-to-medium hump size, small dewlap, fine skin, and uniform brown colour, which is lighter around the muzzle. The adaptation to their environment and the relative resistance to trypanosomosis disease make the Horro an important breed in its habitat.
Nganda Cattle
The Nganda, also known as Sese Island cattle, is a Sanga–Zebu intermediate, which was developed as a result of interbreeding the East African Shorthorn Zebu and the Ankole and the Alur cattle (Rege and Tawah 1999). It occupies Central Uganda and parts of Western Uganda, south of Lake Albert (Kajura 2001). The Nganda was developed mainly from the interbreeding of the Small East African Zebu in Uganda, mainly the Nkedi, and the Ankole Sanga (mainly the Baima but also Watusi in recent times). Indeed, the Ankole cattle have been mixed with the adjacent Bukedi Zebu over the past three centuries (Rege and Tawah 1999), and the interbreeding continues. Although it is not currently on the red or yellow list of threatened breeds, the Nganda deserves conservation attention. The only on-station open nucleus breeding herd for the breed in Uganda was disbanded and is being considered for reconstitution.
The Nganda breed habitat is the Buganda region in central Uganda and, hence, the name Nganda. In the area north of Lake Victoria and between Lake Kyoga (Busoga region), it is referred to as Nsoga type, and in the areas around Lake Albert (Bunyoro region), it is called the Nyoro type. This breed of cattle is also found in the tsetse-infested areas south of Lake Albert and east of Semiliki River. The bulls have characteristic wrinkles around the eyes.
The special characteristics of Nganda cattle are horns that are typically long and round in cross section and white and thick at the base; a hump that is small and cervico-thoracic in location; and the dewlap that varies but is generally moderate in size, sometimes appearing a little fleshy but has few folds. The coat colours are variable, with red, black, and brown being more common.
Nganda are used for milk and work and as meat animals (Rege and Tawah 1999). The adult body length of male Nganda cattle ranges between 283 and 416 cm, that of the female range between 300 and 338 cm, and the height at withers in male Nganda averages 116 cm and 115–122 cm in females. The Nganda cattle are hardy and have high reproductive rates, even under poor nutrition. On average, they produce a calf every year (DAGRIS 2022). A typical Nganda cow is shown in Fig. 4.30.
Sukuma Cattle
Sukuma cattle are a product of the interbreeding of various ecotypes of Tanganyika Zebu with the Ankole from adjacent areas of Rwanda, Burundi, and southern Uganda. The current habitat is limited to Tanzania’s Sukumaland—south of Lake Victoria on the eastern border of Mwanza and the north-eastern parts of Shinyanga. The area covers Seke, Lalago, Nyalikangu, and the upper Semu River. The horns of Sukuma cattle are medium-to-long and crescent-shaped. They have small humps, small dewlap with thin skin, and a coat colour that varies between red, grey roan, light dun, and solid red. The animals are mainly used for milk and meat but also for work (Rege and Tawah 1999).
Bovines of Tete
Bovines of Tete (Fig. 4.31) were developed from the interbreeding of the Angonia Zebu and the Landim Sanga in Mozambique. Their habitat is the coastal area of northern Mozambique between Lake Malawi and the Indian Ocean. They are considered to have some level of trypanotolerance. They are primarily used for meat but also for milk and work (Rege and Tawah 1999). They are morphologically similar to the Landim but are smaller in size and have larger humps and lateral black horns. They can produce carcasses weighing 85–110 kg.
4.4 Commercial Composite Breeds
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is home to at least five commercial composite breeds with varying proportions of exotic blood. Unfortunately, only one of them—the Bonsmara of South Africa—is secure in terms of numbers and the existence of programmes for continuing genetic improvement. The other four are the Mpwapwa of Tanzania (dual-purpose); the Mangan’i Boina of Madagascar (a dairy breed); the Renitelo, also of Madagascar (beef); and the Wakwa of Cameroon (beef). These breeds are summarized below (see also Rege and Tawah 1999).
The Bonsmara
The Bonsmara breed (Fig. 4.32) is a composite breed of cattle known for high-quality beef. Originating in South Africa as a scientific experiment of Professor Jan Bonsma, the breed was created from the mating between local Afrikaner cows and the European Shorthorn and Hereford bulls, with the final breed composition being approximately 5/8 Afrikaner, 3/16 Shorthorn, and 3/16 Hereford. The outcome of this scientific experiment is a breed that incorporates the hardiness of the Afrikaner and the beef traits of the European Hereford and Shorthorn cattle. The breed’s name was coined from the researcher’s name, Bonsma, and the research station, Mara. The breed was recognized in 1964, and the Bonsmara Cattle Breeders’ Society of South Africa was founded the same year, and breed improvement programmes have been operating since then. The breed was registered in 1972. The Bonsmara has become the biggest of all beef and dual-purpose breeds in South Africa through concerted research undertaken to improve the breed. Bonsmara cows have excellent mothering ability under diverse environmental conditions and wean calves that are suitable for finishing on pasture or in feed-lots and have excellent meat qualities. The animals are well-adapted to warm bushveld and subtropical areas. They are also reported to be tolerant of ticks.
The Bonsmara has been exported to countries in and outside Africa where it has become well-established. Today Bonsmara is found in Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia, Swaziland, Botswana, Angola, Mozambique, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Australia, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina, and the United States, where its attributes under similar conditions are highly valued.
The Mpwapwa
The Mpwapwa breed (Fig. 4.33) was developed as a composite dual-purpose breed for milk and meat production in medium- and low-input production environments (Chawala et al. 2017). The breed was developed through a crossbreeding programme involving East African Zebu, Indian Zebu, and European dairy breeds, mainly Ayrshire. This crossbreeding programme was initiated in the 1920s.
The initial programme was halted in 1940, and a new programme was started in 1944, with the aim of creating an animal capable of producing 2300 kg of milk in a 305-day lactation, having a calving interval of 380 days, and steers attaining a 250-kg carcass weight at 4 years of age (Syrstad 1990; Bwire et al. 2005). To achieve this, additional genetics were introduced, including the Kenya Boran (Bos indicus), the Jersey, and Guernsey in addition to the Ayrshire as sources of European (Bos taurus) dairy genetics. The composite was declared a breed in 1958 (Kiwuwa and Kyomo 1970; Rushalaza et al. 1993), and a nucleus herd of Mpwapwa was established in 1958 to drive the breeding programme (Syrstad 1990). By the mid-1960s, at the Mpwapwa Livestock Breeding Station, the breed contained approximately 20% Tanganyika Zebu, 10% Boran, 5% Ankole, 55% Red Sindhi and Sahiwal, and 10% Ayrshire (Syrstad 1990). The breed development continued, and in 1971, the breed composition was estimated to be 32% Red Sindhi, 30% Sahiwal, 19% Tanganyika Zebu, 10% Boran, and 9% Ayrshire and Shorthorn. Then the breed was selected towards Sahiwal, and by 1988, the Sahiwal content had reached 75% (Katyega 1987).
Unfortunately, the breeding programme has not been consistent throughout this period, and genotype stability (fixed genotype composition) has not been achieved. This phase was further complicated by factors such as disease outbreaks, droughts, inadequate nutrition, and a lack of enabling political and economic environments, all worsened by technical staff who were inadequate in driving the programme. For example, in the 1990s, the Mpwapwa cattle population declined significantly because of mortalities caused by East Coast fever (ECF), which led to the near extinction of the breed (Bwire et al. 2005). Consequently, breeding targets were not achieved, and new genetic lines, especially Sahiwal (B. indicus) from Kenya, were introduced.
There has never been more than 1000 pure Mpwapwa cows at any one time, and there has been little dissemination outside the original station (Wilson 2021). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has classified the Mpwapwa breed as being at risk of extinction (Syrstad 1990; Rege 1999), even before it has really been fully established. However, multiplication efforts from 1999 onwards supposedly increased the population of the breed owing to farmers’ increased demand for improved cows and bulls for draught power. The efforts involved the multiplication of the pure Mpwapwa breed and the intensification of the increase in the number of these animals by back-crossing the available pure Mpwapwa with Boran and Sahiwal. The underlying consideration and assumption driving the breed choices and mating plans were that the Mpwapwa breed production potential was on par with Sahiwal, while the Boran cows were known to be better milkers than the Tanzania Shorthorn Zebu (TSZ) (Bwire et al. 2005).
However, a major challenge has been how to scale up a breeding programme to cover the needs of a wider breeder and consumer community—generating a large number of animals and systematically distributing these to farmers (Chawala et al. 2017). The target of 2300 kg of milk per 305-day lactation has not been realized, while the goal of 230 kg carcass per steer at the age of 4 years was realized in 1985. On-farm breed performance studies in the 1970s–1980s showed that the Mpwapwa cows were yielding four times more milk and had higher growth rates than the TSZ cows (Rushalaza et al. 1993), and the breed has been widely accepted by the community owing to its milk and meat yield, disease tolerance/resistance, and the ability of the bulls to be used for draught power (Komwihangilo et al. 2009).
There has not been a recent population census or estimate. By 1997, the estimate was 1000–1500 heads, and other than the animals on government stations, there were no ‘purebreds’ left on farms (Rege 1999). The Mpwapwa is clearly an example of a composite breed with a potential for high productivity and is liked by farmers. The failure for the breed to emerge as a major breed being used widely in Tanzania and neighbouring countries is principally an institutional failure to put in place a functional breeding programme to stabilize the breed and scale its use. If no steps are taken to address these, the Mpwapwa will disappear.
The Renitelo Breed
The Renitelo breed (Fig. 4.34) is a three-way composite beef cattle breed created at the Kianjasoa station (in Madagascar) by crossing Malagasy Zebu (25%) × Limousine (50%) × Afrikander (25%). The development of this breed was initiated in 1951, building on related crossbreeding work, which started in 1946, with the objective to produce a beef cattle breed suited for the typical Madagascar conditions. Although the breed was recognized in 1965, it was not registered. In 1992, the government took steps to revitalize the work on the breed. Interest in the breed had waned in the preceding period. Despite its many valuable traits (e.g. its adaptation to a wide range of conditions in Madagascar, high growth rate, and draught power), the breed suffers from high sensitivity to the skin disease dermatophilosis (previously called streptothrichosis). The breed is currently at high risk of extinction.
The Mangan’i Boina Breed
The Mangan’i Boina (also known as Manjan’i Boina) is found in the Mahajanga province of Madagascar. It is a dairy type of breed created for the hot coastal climate of the Mahajanga province. It is considered to consist of (unknown proportions) the local Madagascar Zebu and the imported dual-purpose (dairy/beef)-type Brune des Alpes from France. Breed development was started in the 1980s, and it is still under formation. There were only 200 animals in 1998. The breed has not been registered, and without any concerted focus on its development, it will likely disappear.
The Wakwa Breed
The Wakwa breed (Fig. 4.35) is a composite cattle breed developed from crossing the American Brahman as the paternal line and the local Gudali of Cameroon as the dam line. The resulting F1 generation, although considered then to be susceptible to streptothricosis, proved to be most adaptable to the Cameroon environment. Through subsequent generations of inter se mating, the cross (named Wakwa) turned out to be tolerant of streptothricosis and was found to be a suitable beef animal for the local environment.
The Drakensberger
Although there is literature that refers to the Drakensberger of South Africa (Fig. 4.36) as a composite breed, it has a long history, which does not compare to the more recent composite breeds in this section. It dates back to the indigenous cattle possessed by the Khoi and Bantu tribes of the Western Cape of South Africa in the seventeenth century. Jan van Riebeeck supposedly crossbred the indigenous black cattle in 1665 with eight imported Gröningen bulls, which became known as ‘Vaderlanders’ in the early 1700s. Thus, the Drakensberger, also known as the Uys cattle (after the Uys family that played a significant role in the early days of the breeding), is considered to be the world’s first synthetic or composite cattle breed, although there is no data on the proportionate genetic content of different cattle breeds from which it originated.
4.5 Well-Established Exotic Breeds in Africa
Although livestock have been part of the culture in SSA for a long time, the commercialization of animals based on specific traits is relatively new—a twentieth-century phenomenon. For a long time, individual herds of cattle were all that counted. The oldest archaeological evidence of domestic cattle dates back to between 6000 and 5000 BC. The Kushite Empire (300 BC–350 AD) used cattle for draught power to drive irrigation. However, the first recorded use of cattle in trading is reported in 1250–1450 AD in Great Zimbabwe, where cattle were traded together with ivory, gold, and salt. Further, cattle are documented to have been traded in the Zulu nation (1816–1897 AD). Recorded literature indicates that milk was a free commodity, representing good hospitality and community sharing. The indigenous breeds, which, by today’s definition, are not dairy cattle breeds catered to these needs. With the exception of a few countries, the main dairy products consumed were liquid milk, sour milk, and butter.
Following the establishment of the first herd books in the late 1700s, most European cattle populations have developed into clearly defined breed types, and the selection for specific traits (e.g. with a focus on dairy, beef, or dual purpose) has been accompanied by an increase in the uniformity of colour and other external characteristics within each breed (Cunningham and Syrstad 2005). This specialization of breeds has, among other things, led to a significant reduction in the number of breeds in Europe and North America. For example, today, more than half of the dairy cows in Europe and North America are of one breed type, the Holstein-Friesian.
The main driver for the utilization of popular and well-established exotic breeds in Africa has been the commercialization of livestock products stimulated by the post-Second World War globalization and driven by European settler farmers in the period before and following the political independence of African states. Subsequently, as the demand for animal products (meat, milk, and other dairy products) increased, so did the need for high-producing breeds. This has led to the importation of European cattle breeds, which, initially, were meant for the so-called high management farms and ranches. This trend has substantially increased post-independence, supported by international development agencies, and is increasingly driven by international private livestock breeding companies. In some countries, the intentional importation of tropical dairy (or dual-purpose) breeds such as Sahiwal or Brahman was done to serve the needs of poorly managed or ‘low-to-medium-input’ (smallholder) farms. This restriction policy for the European dairy breeds had some negative consequences for livestock development. For example, the introduction of Sahiwal from India and Pakistan during the colonial era essentially replaced efforts for the within-breed genetic improvement of indigenous breeds for smallholders in the highlands of Kenya. On the other hand, the unintended consequence of lifting the restriction policy for the European dairy breeds for the smallholder farms was the rapid introduction of the ‘not-fit-for-purpose’ European dairy breeds into poorly managed farms.
Exotic dairy breeds that are dominant in Africa today include Friesian, Jersey, Ayrshire, Holstein-Friesian, and Brown Swiss. Also widespread are Guernsey, Simmental/Fleckvieh, Red Dane, Dairy Shorthorn, and Normande, among others. Today, the dominant exotic beef breeds in Africa include Angus, Hereford, Charolais, Limousin, Brahman, and Gelbvieh.
Of the three main strategies for using exotic germplasm—breed replacement, continuous crossbreeding systems (e.g. rotational or crisscross crossbreeding), and the creation of synthetic or composite breeds—the one widely witnessed across the continent is breed replacement, in which some farmers, usually large- and medium-scale, remove or reduce indigenous breeds on their farms to focus on one or more specific pure exotic breeds as a basis of their farming enterprise. As alluded to above, Africa has had a few initiatives aimed at developing composite breeds, but these have not been consistently successful. With regard to crossbreeding, while the practice is widespread, it is opportunistic and haphazard. Consequently, the continent has a ‘fruit salad’ of crosses of all kinds. For example, in eastern Africa, where the Holstein-Friesian has been widely used, there is a wide range of Friesian genes across and within smallholder farms. This would not be a problem if genetic composition was consistently a choice by farmers. Unfortunately, it is more a reflection of the absence of programmes to systematically develop appropriate breed combinations to supply farmers with the genetics they need. Where crossbreeding programmes have been tried, and there have been many across SSA, they have been short-term donor-funded research or development ‘projects’, and they have generally failed to consider the needs of farmers, which include production traits (e.g. milk, meat, and traction), adaptive attributes, and other more nuanced considerations such as product taste, animal colour, etc.
Overall, crossbreeding with exotic dairy cattle in Africa has been more widespread and has taken root in agro-ecological zones, which are similar to the temperate origins of these breeds. This can be seen in eastern Africa (the highlands of Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Tanzania) and South Africa.
The Holstein-Friesian (a combination of the original European Friesian, the North American Holstein, and intermediates between the two) dominates the global dairy industry and is also the leading exotic dairy breed in terms of numbers in pure and crossbred forms across the African continent. Most countries, which have considered specialized dairy animals, have almost invariably tried this breed, with varying levels of success. Lessons learnt, especially in relation to its large body size and a lack of adaptability to the myriad production environmental and production system challenges—the inadequacy and low quality of feeds, heat, disease, etc.—have, in many countries, informed the introduction of smaller, ‘less fragile’ breeds such as the Jersey. Indeed, the Jersey is probably the second most widespread exotic cattle breed on the continent presently—with an estimated 34 African countries reported to have imported the Jersey at some point in the recent past or are actively doing so at the present time (Opoola et al. 2022).
Crossbreeding for milk and beef production in Africa using some of the major exotic breeds has been a subject of various studies (e.g. Wilson (2018), Cunningham and Syrstad (2005), Gregory et al. (1984), Wilson (2009), and Moyo et al. (1994)).
Table 4.6 presents a summary of some of the main exotic cattle breeds in Africa.
Although some of the exotic breeds are being used as pure breeds in Africa, all exotic breeds that have been introduced into Africa have been used in some form of crossbreeding with indigenous breeds. Indeed, their use in crossbreeding is more widespread than their use as pure breeds.
While some of the exotic breeds have been successfully utilized, there are significant yield gaps, that is, gaps between what is possible given the genetic composition of the animals and what is realized. This is particularly evident in the dairy sector. Some of the reasons for these gaps include a mismatch between the exotic genetics and the local smallholder production systems. Partly, this has been due to the fact that breeding goals and long-term breeding strategies for smallholder farmers have not been defined clearly. Although indigenous livestock breeds may not have levels of production (milk yield, growth rate, number of eggs, etc.) as high as their exotic counterparts under certain production systems, the indigenous breeds possess valuable traits such as tolerance and resistance to disease, high fertility, good maternal ability, unique product qualities, longevity, and adaptation to harsh environments and poor-quality feeds, which have not been appropriately exploited in the breeding programmes aimed at improving productivity. Overall, the use of exotic breeds in Africa has been consistently successful only under high levels of management in medium-to-large farms. However, in eastern Africa, especially Kenya, the successful use of exotic crossbreeds in smallholder dairy systems is a demonstration that smallholders can utilize these breeds when conditions, both production and market, are right.
4.6 Summary and Conclusion
Of the four main categories of indigenous African cattle—the humpless (Bos taurus or Taurine) cattle (discussed in Chap. 3), the humped (Bos indicus or the Zebu), the Sanga (Taurine × Zebu) hybrids, and the Zenga (Sanga × Zebu hybrids)—the majority of cattle breeds and strains on the continent are Zebu.
The Zebu and its derivatives (Sanga and Zenga types) are well-adapted to hot and dry environmental conditions and are known to be more resistant to tick infestations compared to Bos taurus cattle—both indigenous to Africa and exotic. Consequently, the Zebu are widely distributed in Africa, inhabiting the production systems in the expansive arid and semi-arid areas across the continent. They generally have larger body sizes and higher overall productivity levels in tsetse-free areas of the continent.
The population of the Zebu is highest in the East and the Horn of Africa region—in both highlands and lowlands, including the large arid and semi-arid land masses—compared to other regions. This distribution is, in large part, a legacy of the history of cattle introduction (the Zebu having entered the continent primarily through the Horn of Africa) as well as human migration patterns on the African continent. The two waves of cattle introduction into the continent and their subsequent migration led to a dominance of the Zebu-type cattle in Eastern Africa and explain the relative absence of distinct Taurine cattle in the sub-region. Indeed, there is only one remaining Taurine breed in the sub-region, the Sheko of South-west Ethiopia and the eastern parts of South Sudan. Box 4.1 is a summary of the findings by Rege (1999) with regard to the risk status of cattle breeds in Africa. The situation has changed significantly, and many more breeds are at escalated risk levels than they were back in 1999. An updated comprehensive survey is overdue.
Box 4.1 Summary of the risk status of cattle breeds in Africa
Africa is home to a total of 145 cattle breeds/strains comprising two Taurine Longhorns, 15 Taurine Shorthorns, 75 Zebu (Bos indicus), 30 Sanga, eight Zenga (Zebu–Sanga), nine breeds that are derived from the interbreeding of indigenous breeds/strains located in close proximity to each other, and six systematically created composite breeds. Out of the 145 breeds identified from the survey, 47 (about 32%) were considered to be at risk of extinction. The risk categories used were: Critical (most severe), Endangered, Vulnerable, and Rare (least severe). Of the breeds identified to be at risk of extinction, six were in the Rare category, ten were Vulnerable, another ten were Endangered, and 15 were in the Critical category. A total of 22 breeds (about 13%) previously recognized on the continent have become extinct in the past century. This number excludes some populations, which have lost their individual identity due to admixtures involving two or more originally distinct breeds.
Source: Rege (1999).
Although across the continent, the population of the Zebu as a group remains large and the overall genetic diversity high, there are threats, increasingly placing several specific strains or breeds (of Zebu and its stabilized derivatives) at risk of extinction, with some already extinct and others facing extinction. Crossbreeding presents the highest risk. As a result, several existing Zebu breeds and their derivatives are critically endangered, having fewer than 1000 animals. Four of these are Small East African Zebu (Mkalama Dun, Pare, Chagga, and Baria), and three are South African Sanga (Nkone, Pedi, and Shangan).
Many early African societies, especially nomadic groups, depended almost entirely on livestock, with cattle playing a central role. Pastoralism remains an important system on the continent today, as exemplified by the Fulani, Maasai, and the Tuareg communities. Across the continent, cattle remain major sociocultural assets, playing important economic and sociocultural roles, as well as major sources of animal protein (milk and meat), draft power, and manure that contribute to crop agriculture.
African indigenous breeds are considered to be poor performers relative to exotic breeds in terms of outputs of products (e.g. meat or milk) per animal and unit of time. While this is true on the surface, it does not consider the adaptive attributes of the indigenous breeds and the fact that the more ‘productive’ exotic breeds can hardly survive in the (most dominant) production environments in which the indigenous breeds are able to not only survive but also produce and support the livelihoods of their owners. Moreover, while commercial exotic cattle breeds, provided with enabling production environments, excel because they have been continuously selected for the specific productivity traits, some indigenous African breeds are known to inherently have either good dairy or beef potential or both. But only limited effort has been made to fully exploit these potentials. Outstanding examples of Zebu cattle and their derivatives covered in this chapter include the dual-purpose group (exhibiting good dairy and beef production attributes), comprising the White Fulani cattle (West African Zebu) and Fogera cattle (Zenga); the dairy types, including the Kenana and Butana cattle of Sudan, which are among the best milk-producing Zebu breeds globally; and the beef types, which are exemplified by the Boran or Borana, which are now globally recognized and sought after. The potential for within-breed improvement among indigenous African breeds is, indeed, huge.
Moreover, while intensive and consistent artificial selection and management interventions have resulted in marked productivity improvements among cattle (and livestock, more broadly) in the global North, this has come at a cost: reduced genetic diversity. The immediate consequence is expressed in such performance traits as fertility, which suffers significantly in inbred animals (an extreme case of lack of diversity). The long-term consequence is more dire: loss of options for addressing yet unknown production challenges and/or human requirements of the future. In contrast, most African cattle breeds have not been selected consistently for productivity gains. The main (natural and artificial) selection focus has been on survival in the largely unpredictable, harsh, and changing environmental conditions. The major threat African breeds have faced has been genetic dilution, historically, through interbreeding among neighbouring breeds, and more recently, through haphazardly and inconsistently executed, widespread crossbreeding. Although artificial selection programmes have been tried, these have tended to be short-term ‘projects’, and there are only limited cases of sustained efforts on within-breed genetic improvements.
The narrative that indigenous African breeds have inherently low productivity has led to the shift in attention to genetic ‘upgrading’ with and replacement by exotic breeds from the global North. Today, the continent has, in addition to the four main indigenous cattle categories, a fifth as well as a sixth category. The fifth category consists of the composite breeds developed through systematic crossbreeding involving one or more indigenous breeds with one or more imported commercial breeds. Crossbreeding and the formation of composite breeds is intended to create fit-for-purpose breeds for specific production contexts. The sixth category includes the pure exotic breeds that are directly imported, maintained, and used for commercial production. Some of the exotic breeds are thriving in specific locations of the continent under commercial production systems for dairy, beef, or dual purpose. On the other hand, efforts to create composite breeds have faltered, in major part because they were driven by the public sector—government research—efforts to create genotypes that should (at least from technical considerations) provide a desirable combination of adaptation and productivity traits. Unless the private sector is involved in the design and implementation of these breeding programmes and the needs and capabilities of smallholders are considered, such programmes will continue to be restricted in existence only on research stations and government ranches.
Abbreviations
- AD:
-
Anno Domini
- BC:
-
Before Christ
- Cm:
-
Centimetres
- DAD-IS:
-
Domestic Animal Diversity Information System
- DAGRIS:
-
Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System
- EASZ:
-
East African Shorthorn Zebu
- ECF:
-
East Coast fever
- FAO:
-
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
- FDLPCS:
-
Federal Department of Livestock and Pest Control Services (Nigeria)
- ILCA:
-
International Livestock Centre for Africa
- ILRI:
-
International Livestock Research Institute
- IRZ:
-
Institute of Animal Research (Cameroon)
- ISBN:
-
International Standard Book Number
- KEASZ:
-
East African Shorthorn Zebu (Kenya Cluster)
- Kg:
-
Kilograms
- LEAZ:
-
Large East African Zebu
- mtDNA:
-
Mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid
- OAU:
-
Organization of African Unity
- QTLs:
-
Quantitative trait loci
- RIM:
-
Resource Inventory and Management Limited (Nigeria)
- SEASZ:
-
Small East African Shorthorn Zebu
- SEAZ:
-
Small East African Zebu
- SNP:
-
Single nucleotide polymorphism
- SSA:
-
Sub-Saharan Africa
- TSZ:
-
Tanzania Shorthorn Zebu
- UBOS:
-
Uganda Bureau of Statistics
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Rege, J.E.O. et al. (2026). The History, Geography, and Characteristics of African Zebu, Zebu–Taurine Derivatives, and Well-Established Exotic Cattle Breeds. In: Ibeagha-Awemu, E.M., Peters, S.O., Djikeng, A., Rege, J.E.O. (eds) African Livestock Genetic Resources and Sustainable Breeding Strategies. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_4
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