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OkIntroduction
Aiming to limit global temperature rise to less than 2°C, the European Union, United Kingdom, and United States have committed to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050, while China is aiming for 2060. Meeting these ambitious targets will require changes to everyday practices and lifestyles, including reducing flying and driving, decreasing red meat and dairy products in diets, and adopting low-carbon technologies. While there is an increase in some pro-environmental behaviors (e.g., recycling) in many countries, most of the behavior changes required are not yet happening.1 Those with the largest carbon footprints will need to make the most substantial behavioral changes, and the distribution of individual impacts is highly uneven.2 Besides changes to consumption behaviors, individuals can take climate action to indirectly cut emissions through activities such as influencing others, making professional choices, voting, or protesting.3
1.
Ipsos
Perils of Perception
Environmental Perils, 2021
2.
Chancel, L.
Global carbon inequality over 1990–2019
Nat. Sustain. 2022; 5:931-938
3.
Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Nicholas, K.A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ...
The role of high-socioeconomic-status people in locking in or rapidly reducing energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions
Nat. Energy. 2021; 6:1011-1016
The choices made by individuals will have a critical bearing on global efforts to address climate change. However, individual choices are influenced by a wide range of factors, and many everyday behaviors are subject to habit, rather than deliberative choice.4 Our behaviors are influenced by psychological characteristics, social and cultural norms, material and spatial environments, and political conventions. The ways in which these factors combine create conditions that either constrain or enable the translation of individual choices into sustained low-carbon lifestyles and routines.
4.
Kurz, T. ∙ Gardner, B. ∙ Verplanken, B. ...
Habitual behaviors or patterns of practice? Explaining and changing repetitive climate-relevant actions
WIREs Clim. Change. 2015; 6:113-128
There is a substantial and growing body of work on the behaviors and choices needed to deliver radical carbon emissions.5 Some of this work has been subject to critique, however, for its apparent tendency to over-emphasize the need for individual behavior change without adequately acknowledging or addressing those structures and systems that embed the consumption of fossil fuels into everyday life, constrain individual agency, and create barriers to low-carbon lifestyles.6 Such debates reflect the philosophical tussle between structure and agency, which is as old as social science itself.7,8 But there is a danger that academic exchanges create theoretical and methodological schisms that can serve to confuse and even deter those outside social scientific niches, such as policy-makers.9 In the absence of a comprehensive understanding of what can influence pro-environmental choices, and in light of the escalating climate emergency, there is a need for more philosophically agnostic approaches that synthesize evidence across the social sciences on the potential for, and limits to, behavior change to mitigate climate change.
5.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Poortinga, W. ∙ Capstick, S.
Behaviour change to address climate change
Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2021; 42:76-81
6.
Shove, E.
Beyond the ABC: Climate Change Policy and Theories of Social Change
Environ. Plan. A. 2010; 42:1273-1285
7.
Giddens, A.
The Constitution of Society [electronic Resource] : Outline of the Theory of Structuration
Wiley, 1984
8.
Reckwitz, A.
Toward a theory of social practices: a development in culturalist theorizing
Eur. J. Soc. Theor. 2002; 5:243-263
9.
Hampton, S. ∙ Adams, R.
Behavioural economics vs social practice theory: Perspectives from inside the United Kingdom government
Energy Res. Social Sci. 2018; 46:214-224
In this review, we address this need by gathering and presenting a wide range of evidence in a coherent and accessible way for audiences within and outside of the academic social sciences. It draws on evidence spanning psychology, sociology, geography, and interdisciplinary climate research, but does not follow a systematic review methodology. Instead, our aim was to construct an account of the full breadth of climate choices using illustrative examples that help the reader to navigate a complex and expanding body of research. Reflecting the evidence base, these are somewhat skewed toward Europe and North America, but where possible we include examples from elsewhere. We first identify six major “domains” of choice. Four of these represent the key sources of individual and household greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions: energy, transportation, diet, and the consumption of other goods and services (termed “shopping” as shorthand). The other two domains concern those sets of choices that have important, but indirect, impacts on climate mitigation: the ability to influence others as a family member, social agent, and organizational participant; and civic activities, such as voting. We further map out combinations of psychological, socio-cultural, material, and political factors that can help to foster low-carbon choices, and also those in which incumbent structures create barriers to individuals seeking sustainable lifestyles. In order to enable and accelerate more sustainable choices, a mix of upstream (e.g., structural), midstream (e.g., choice environment), and downstream (e.g., informational) interventions are required. This review contributes new heuristic frameworks to explain the scope, potential, and limitations of individual choice for climate action.
Choosing climate: Understanding the potential of choice
In recent years there has been much debate over who should bear responsibility for climate change. Since the advent of ecological footprint, there has been substantial effort to quantify the climate impacts of different entities, including corporations,10 territories,11 households,12 and individuals.13 Around two-thirds of GHG emissions can be linked to household consumption, amounting to a global average of around 6 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per person.14 In advanced liberal economies, climate policy has hitherto been focused on maximizing opportunities for emissions reductions that have minimal impact on individuals. The UK government for instance, boasts of a 47.3% reduction in emissions since 1990,15 thanks to the widespread deployment of renewable electricity generation and the improved efficiency of appliances and vehicles. However, its statutory advisors on climate policy, the Climate Change Committee, have highlighted the need for substantially greater social engagement on emissions reduction if climate targets are to be met.16
10.
Walenta, J.
The making of the corporate carbon footprint: the politics behind emission scoping
Journal of Cultural Economy. 2021; 14:533-548
11.
Bhattacharya, M. ∙ Inekwe, J.N. ∙ Sadorsky, P.
Consumption-based and territory-based carbon emissions intensity: Determinants and forecasting using club convergence across countries
Energy Econ. 2020; 86, 104632
12.
Goldstein, B. ∙ Gounaridis, D. ∙ Newell, J.P.
The carbon footprint of household energy use in the United States
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2020; 117:19122-19130
13.
Wynes, S. ∙ Nicholas, K.A.
The climate mitigation gap: education and government recommendations miss the most effective individual actions
Environ. Res. Lett. 2017; 12, 074024
14.
Ivanova, D. ∙ Barrett, J. ∙ Wiedenhofer, D. ...
Quantifying the potential for climate change mitigation of consumption options
Environ. Res. Lett. 2020; 15, 093001
15.
BEIS (2022)
UK Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Provisional Figures
Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, 2021
16.
Climate Change Committee
The Sixth Carbon Budget: The UK’s Path to Net Zero (Climate Change Committee)
2020
For individuals, the major activities that generate emissions involve transport and mobility; the use of energy in the home for space heating, hot water, and running appliances; food and diets; and the consumption of goods and services. Reviewing studies that quantify the mitigation potential of pro-environmental behaviors, Ivanova and colleagues compiled evidence across each of these activity domains.14 Their findings show that there is considerable heterogeneity in the reduction potential of behaviors across contexts. For transport choices, they find that the greatest potential for emissions reductions is from living car-free, shifting to battery electric vehicles, taking one less long-haul flight, and shifting to public transport. The most impactful energy-related decisions include installing renewable electricity generation, renovating homes to be more energy efficient, and switching to a heat pump or other renewable heating system. Food-related choices include reducing meat consumption (especially adopting a vegan diet) and improving the efficiency of cooking equipment. Other pro-climate consumption choices include not having pets and buying services from the sharing economy.
14.
Ivanova, D. ∙ Barrett, J. ∙ Wiedenhofer, D. ...
Quantifying the potential for climate change mitigation of consumption options
Environ. Res. Lett. 2020; 15, 093001
A plethora of tools have been created to help individuals estimate their own carbon footprints, sponsored by governments,17,18 global charities,19 and corporations.20 These are intended to enable individuals to learn about the impacts of their own behaviors, the unequal distribution of footprints within and between countries,2 and help make more informed, sustainable choices. Certainly, there is evidence that individuals’ knowledge and awareness of their contribution to climate change is limited,21 that they tend to overestimate the contribution of waste behaviors (e.g., recycling), and underestimate the contribution of diet and air travel.22 Although research has consistently found weak causal links between the provision of information about climate impacts and more sustainable consumption choices,5,23 the way in which information is delivered (content, timing, context, type of messenger) is crucial.24 Moreover, there are multiple forms of knowledge (e.g., action-related, effectiveness knowledge25) that play a part in shaping environmental behaviors, besides scientific knowledge about the impacts of certain activities.
17.
US EPA Carbon Footprint Calculator. https://www3.epa.gov/carbon-footprint-calculator.18.
DEFRA
Act on CO2 Calculator: Public Trial Version. Data, Methodology and Assumptions Paper
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2007
19.
WWF Footprint Calculator https://footprint.wwf.org.uk/.20.
BP Know Your Carbon Footprint. https://www.knowyourcarbonfootprint.com/.2.
Chancel, L.
Global carbon inequality over 1990–2019
Nat. Sustain. 2022; 5:931-938
21.
HM Government
Climate Change and Net Zero: Public Awareness and Perceptions
2021
22.
Wynes, S. ∙ Zhao, J. ∙ Donner, S.D.
How well do people understand the climate impact of individual actions?
Climatic Change. 2020; 162:1521-1534
5.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Poortinga, W. ∙ Capstick, S.
Behaviour change to address climate change
Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2021; 42:76-81
23.
Brocklehurst, F. ∙ Whittle, C. ∙ McAlister, C. ...
Can the provision of energy and resource efficiency information influence what consumers buy? A review of the evidence
Proceedings of the eceee Summer Study Conference
2019
24.
van Valkengoed, A.M. ∙ Abrahamse, W. ∙ Steg, L.
To select effective interventions for pro-environmental behaviour change, we need to consider determinants of behaviour
Nat. Human Behav. 2022; 6:1482-1492
25.
Frick, J. ∙ Kaiser, F.G. ∙ Wilson, M.
Environmental knowledge and conservation behavior: exploring prevalence and structure in a representative sample
Pers. Indiv. Differ. 2004; 37:1597-1613
The rationale for creating tools to raise awareness among individuals has been subject to further criticism on the basis that by placing the onus on individuals, attention is deflected from the principal culprits of climate change. The Carbon Disclosure Project attributes responsibility for 70% of global GHG emissions to just 100 companies,26 while a widely read blog article from 2020 criticizes the concept of the carbon footprint, declaring it a “sham … intended to manipulate your thinking about one of the greatest environmental threats of our time.”27 Clearly, the role of individual action on climate is subject to disagreement, and as global GHG emissions continue to rise, the degree to which individuals should take responsibility for climate action has become a mainstream debate.
26.
Griffin, P.
The Carbon Majors Database. CDP Carbon Majors Report
CDP Worldwide, 2017
27.
Kaufman, M.
The Carbon Footprint Sham: A “Successful, Deceptive” PR Campaign
Mashable, 2020
A further criticism of emissions calculators is that individuals are reduced to their role as consumers. Carbon footprints typically quantify the emissions associated with the consumption of energy, transport fuel, food, and other goods, providing users with an estimate of their personal impact alongside tips for making lower-carbon choices and appeals such as “it’s time to go on a low-carbon diet.”27 But individuals are much more than consumers. They are also family and community members, workers and professionals, and citizens and voters.3 Several academic researchers have sought to build the case for greater public discourse on the topic of climate change, not just in politics and the media, but in everyday conversations at home and among social networks.28,29 Climate scientist Katherine Hayhoe’s TED talk titled “The most important thing you can due to fight climate change: talk about it,” has been viewed over 4 million times, while the popular movie Don’t Look Up was released alongside guidance for individual action spanning multiple roles.30
27.
Kaufman, M.
The Carbon Footprint Sham: A “Successful, Deceptive” PR Campaign
Mashable, 2020
3.
Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Nicholas, K.A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ...
The role of high-socioeconomic-status people in locking in or rapidly reducing energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions
Nat. Energy. 2021; 6:1011-1016
28.
Corner, A. ∙ Clarke, J.
Talking Climate: From Research to Practice in Public Engagement
Palgrave), 2016
29.
Hayhoe, K.
Saving Us: A Climate Scientist’s Case for Hope and Healing in a Divided World First One
Signal Publishers/Atria Books, 2021
hardcover edition. (One Signal Publishers/Atria Books)
30.
Count Us in, and Netflix Take a Step with Don’t Look up & Count Us In. https://dontlookup.count-us-in.com/steps.Individuals can also help to address climate change as citizens: voting, protesting, and lobbying for change. Some climate scientists are leading by example by taking direct action.31 Whereas the link between knowledge of climate change and sustainable consumption choices is weak, evidence from Germany indicates that increased environmental awareness has translated into strong pressure on political actors, as a result of changed voter behavior.32 Considering the activities of individuals in roles other than as consumers helps to shift the focus beyond the comparatively narrow framing of choice and agency that is encouraged by a focus on individual carbon footprints.33 Whereas an emphasis on personal impacts can engender feelings of guilt and powerlessness,34 focusing on influence and climate citizenship can foster more constructive, empowering associations with climate change. Figure 1 represents the six major domains of individual choice for climate action and identifies some of the most impactful behaviors.
31.
Capstick, S. ∙ Thierry, A. ∙ Cox, E. ...
Civil disobedience by scientists helps press for urgent climate action
Nat. Clim. Change. 2022; 12:773-774
32.
Venghaus, S. ∙ Henseleit, M. ∙ Belka, M.
The impact of climate change awareness on behavioral changes in Germany: changing minds or changing behavior?
Energy Sustain. Soc. 2022; 12:8
33.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Seyfang, G. ∙ O’Neill, S.
Public engagement with carbon and climate change: To what extent is the public ‘carbon capable
Global Environ. Change. 2011; 21:56-65
34.
Hickman, C. ∙ Marks, E. ∙ Pihkala, P. ...
Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey
Lancet Planet. Health. 2021; 5:e863-e873
Influences on individual choice capabilities
Human behavior is subject to a variety of influences, and a plethora of theoretical frameworks have been developed to understand how behaviors and habits become established, entrenched, changed, and discontinued.35,36,37,38 These models tend to distinguish between intrinsic (values, personality traits, and abilities) and extrinsic (norms, meanings, and material and political structures) influences, and conventionally, psychologists have focused their efforts on understanding the former category.5 Understanding the distribution and strength of these influences is crucial for those seeking to encourage pro-environmental behavior change. However, empirical and theoretical research has shown that the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic influences is often blurred. For instance, we know that family dynamics39,40 and wealth41 are important predictors of an individual’s environmental behaviors, but neither can easily be categorized as either internal or external factors. Alongside the emergence of environmental psychology as a discipline in its own right, there have been calls to move beyond the simple distinction between individual (intrinsic) and structural (extrinsic) factors, to distinguish different types of influence.5,42
35.
Ajzen, I.
The theory of planned behavior
Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 1991; 50:179-211
36.
Darnton, A.
An Overview of Behaviour Change Models and Their Uses
Centre for Sustainable Development, University of Westminster, 2008
37.
Jackson, T.
Motivating Sustainable Consumption: A Review of Evidence on Consumer Behaviour and Behavioural Change
A report to the Sustainable Development Research Network, 2005
38.
Stern, P.C.
New Environmental Theories: Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior
J. Soc. Issues. 2000; 56:407-424
5.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Poortinga, W. ∙ Capstick, S.
Behaviour change to address climate change
Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2021; 42:76-81
39.
Grønhøj, A. ∙ Thøgersen, J.
Like father, like son? Intergenerational transmission of values, attitudes, and behaviours in the environmental domain
J. Environ. Psychol. 2009; 29:414-421
40.
Pearce, H. ∙ Hudders, L. ∙ Van de Sompel, D.
Young energy savers: Exploring the role of parents, peers, media and schools in saving energy among children in Belgium
Energy Res. Social Sci. 2020; 63, 101392
41.
Moser, S. ∙ Kleinhückelkotten, S.
Good Intents, but Low Impacts: Diverging Importance of Motivational and Socioeconomic Determinants Explaining Pro-Environmental Behavior, Energy Use, and Carbon Footprint
Environ. Behav. 2018; 50:626-656
5.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Poortinga, W. ∙ Capstick, S.
Behaviour change to address climate change
Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2021; 42:76-81
42.
Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Clayton, S. ∙ Stern, P.C. ...
How psychology can help limit climate change
Am. Psychol. 2021; 76:130-144
Several more integrative, interdisciplinary frameworks have been created, but none have been widely adopted in either climate research or policy-making. Notable examples include the concept of carbon capability,33 the individual-social-material (ISM) framework,43 and the capability, opportunity, motivation-behavior model (COM-B).44 Each approach balances individual and structural influences and combines these with an appreciation of their context and inter-connectedness. Inspired by these models, Figure 2 identifies four main sources of influence and provides examples of factors that typically enable, or place constraints on, individual choice.
33.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Seyfang, G. ∙ O’Neill, S.
Public engagement with carbon and climate change: To what extent is the public ‘carbon capable
Global Environ. Change. 2011; 21:56-65
43.
Darnton, A. ∙ Evans, D., Scottish Government
Influencing Behaviours: A Technical Guide to the ISM Tool
Scottish Government, 2013
44.
Michie, S. ∙ van Stralen, M.M. ∙ West, R.
The behaviour change wheel: A new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions
Implement. Sci. 2011; 6:42
Figure 2 Influences to enable and constrain climate choices can be divided into individual, social, physical, and political categories
These diverse sources of influence do not work in isolation, and when combined they have uneven effects on individuals and their behavior. For instance, the uptake of urban cycling is predicted by age and gender,60 but is also strongly influenced by the availability of (physical) low-carbon transport infrastructure, which is in turn moderated by economic and political factors. How these influences combine also has different effects with respect to the six domains of climate choice. The remainder of this section highlights the complex interplay of influences on individual choice, drawing on systematic reviews and meta-analyses where available, and providing illustrative examples from different geographical and behavioral contexts.
60.
Aldred, R. ∙ Woodcock, J. ∙ Goodman, A.
Does More Cycling Mean More Diversity in Cycling?
Transport Rev. 2016; 36:28-44
Food and diet choices
Compared with other domains, food and diet choices are relatively frequent and situational and are highly mediated by social, cultural, and health-related norms.61 Individual choices are said to bear relatively low behavioral costs and few long-term consequences for the decision-maker (although their cumulative effects are significant).62 Economic, spatial, and political factors influence the options available for dietary choices, such as the availability, range, and price of plant-based foods.63,64,65 However, several systematic reviews and other assessments of food choice determinants conclude that individual and social factors are the strongest predictors of behavior.66,67,68,69 Despite the relative degree of agency in this domain, individuals are known to be resistant to changing their diets, and various psychological barriers have been identified that help to explain this. These include lack of knowledge (or outright denial) of evidence linking foodstuffs to GHG emissions, as well as conflicting priorities or limited resources (financial, time).70
61.
Sobal, J. ∙ Bisogni, C.A.
Constructing Food Choice Decisions
Ann. Behav. Med. 2009; 38:s37-s46
62.
Mertens, S. ∙ Herberz, M. ∙ Hahnel, U.J.J. ...
The effectiveness of nudging: A meta-analysis of choice architecture interventions across behavioral domains
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2022; 119, e2107346118
63.
Larson, N. ∙ Story, M.
A Review of Environmental Influences on Food Choices
Ann. Behav. Med. 2009; 38:s56-s73
64.
Bridle-Fitzpatrick, S.
Tortillas, Pizza, and Broccoli
Food Cult. Soc. 2016; 19:93-128
65.
Marteau, T.M. ∙ Chater, N. ∙ Garnett, E.E.
Changing behaviour for net zero 2050
BMJ. 2021; 375:n2293
66.
Köster, E.
Diversity in the determinants of food choice: A psychological perspective
Food Qual. Prefer. 2009; 20:70-82
67.
Cruwys, T. ∙ Bevelander, K.E. ∙ Hermans, R.C.J.
Social modeling of eating: A review of when and why social influence affects food intake and choice
Appetite. 2015; 86:3-18
68.
Leng, G. ∙ Adan, R.A.H. ∙ Belot, M. ...
The determinants of food choice
Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2017; 76:316-327
69.
Enriquez, J.P. ∙ Archila-Godinez, J.C.
Social and cultural influences on food choices: A review
Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2022; 62:3698-3704
70.
Gifford, R.D. ∙ Chen, A.K.S.
Why aren’t we taking action? Psychological barriers to climate-positive food choices
Climatic Change. 2017; 140:165-178
Diets are strongly influenced by social and cultural norms and traditions.67,69 Meat consumption is significantly influenced by gender,71 and at least in some cultures is associated with masculinity, while vegetarianism connotes femininity and weakness.72 Internationally, the number of people following a vegetarian diet varies widely. India has the highest proportion (22%) and absolute population of vegetarians, while Serbia, Hungary, and Russia are the top three meat-eating countries.73 Practical barriers can compound socio-cultural norms: where vegetarianism is rare, it can be difficult to find sufficient meat-free options in cafés and restaurants. Skill and know-how are also important prerequisites for more climate-friendly food practices. Cooking varied, tasty vegetarian meals can demand new skillsets among people living in cultures where meat dishes are more traditional, while flexibility and creativity are needed to minimize household food waste.74
67.
Cruwys, T. ∙ Bevelander, K.E. ∙ Hermans, R.C.J.
Social modeling of eating: A review of when and why social influence affects food intake and choice
Appetite. 2015; 86:3-18
69.
Enriquez, J.P. ∙ Archila-Godinez, J.C.
Social and cultural influences on food choices: A review
Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2022; 62:3698-3704
71.
Tobler, C. ∙ Visschers, V.H.M. ∙ Siegrist, M.
Eating green. Consumers’ willingness to adopt ecological food consumption behaviors
Appetite. 2011; 57:674-682
72.
Ruby, M.B. ∙ Heine, S.J.
Meat, morals, and masculinity
Appetite. 2011; 56:447-450
73.
Mori, I.
Diets Around the World: An Exploration
2018
74.
Warde, A.
The Practice of Eating
John Wiley & Sons, 2016
Influences on transport and mobility choices
A meta-analysis of psychological and behavioral determinants of transport choices found the strongest predictors to be intentions, habits, and past experiences.75 However, material and spatial factors such as the cost and availability of public transport and electric vehicles (EVs), active travel infrastructure, and urban density and design set the context and boundaries for individual choice. The decision to adopt an EV is simply not available to many low-income households with little access to charging infrastructure.76,77 Flying is strongly correlated with income.78 A systematic review-of-reviews found that individual, social, and infrastructural factors unambiguously influence mode-choice, but that urban form explains the most variation in transport behaviors.79 Supporting this observation, international evidence has consistently shown that the biggest barrier to individuals choosing to walk or cycle more is the perception of safety.80,81,82 The provision of safe, segregated infrastructure is the most significant predictor of active travel in urban areas across the United States.83
75.
Lanzini, P. ∙ Khan, S.A.
Shedding light on the psychological and behavioral determinants of travel mode choice: A meta-analysis
Transport. Res. F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2017; 48:13-27
76.
Canepa, K. ∙ Hardman, S. ∙ Tal, G.
An early look at plug-in electric vehicle adoption in disadvantaged communities in California
Transport Pol. 2019; 78:19-30
77.
Khan, H.A.U. ∙ Price, S. ∙ Avraam, C. ...
Inequitable access to EV charging infrastructure
Electr. J. 2022; 35, 107096
78.
Fouquet, R. ∙ O’Garra, T.
In pursuit of progressive and effective climate policies: Comparing an air travel carbon tax and a frequent flyer levy
Energy Pol. 2022; 171, 113278
79.
Javaid, A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ∙ Bamberg, S.
Determinants of low-carbon transport mode adoption: systematic review of reviews
Environ. Res. Lett. 2020; 15, 103002
80.
Tatah, L. ∙ Wasnyo, Y. ∙ Pearce, M. ...
Travel Behaviour and Barriers to Active Travel among Adults in Yaoundé, Cameroon
Sustainability. 2022; 14:9092
81.
Chillón, P. ∙ Hales, D. ∙ Vaughn, A. ...
A cross-sectional study of demographic, environmental and parental barriers to active school travel among children in the United States
Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Activ. 2014; 11:61
82.
Lorenc, T. ∙ Brunton, G. ∙ Oliver, S. ...
Attitudes to walking and cycling among children, young people and parents: a systematic review
J. Epidemiol. Community Health. 2008; 62:852-857
83.
Le, H.T.K. ∙ Buehler, R. ∙ Hankey, S.
Correlates of the Built Environment and Active Travel: Evidence from 20 US Metropolitan Areas
Environ. Health Perspect. 2018; 126, 077011
Although physical factors dominate, social and cultural influences also impact low-carbon travel behaviors. The uptake of cycling is lower among women and ethnic minorities,84 while in some countries such as the United States, the use of public transport such as urban buses can be stigmatized.85 Urban planning and design for active travel is often politically contentious. For instance, in response to climate change, many urban municipalities in the United Kingdom have introduced low-traffic neighborhoods and other controls on car access, with unforeseen controversy and even reports of violence among residents.86 The reallocation of road space became a key political issue for local elections in the United Kingdom in 2022, and polling in London found that support and opposition was split according to political opinion.86
84.
Nehme, E.K. ∙ Pérez, A. ∙ Ranjit, N. ...
Sociodemographic Factors, Population Density, and Bicycling for Transportation in the United States
J. Phys. Activ. Health. 2016; 13:36-43
85.
Hess, A.
Race, Class, and the Stigma of Riding the Bus in America
The Atlantic, 2012
86.
Bosetti, N. ∙ Connelly, K. ∙ Harding, C. ...
Street Shift: The Future of Low-Traffic Neighbourhoods
Centre for London), 2022
86.
Bosetti, N. ∙ Connelly, K. ∙ Harding, C. ...
Street Shift: The Future of Low-Traffic Neighbourhoods
Centre for London), 2022
Energy consumption in the home
Domestic energy use is most strongly predicted by building characteristics such as fabric efficiency, dwelling area, and heating system type.53,87 Socio-demographic factors including number of occupants, age, and income have also been found to predict annual consumption,87,88 although the strength of these variables is inconsistent across studies.89 Nonetheless, individual choices can have a significant impact on domestic energy usage, and a large-scale study from the United Kingdom demonstrated that everyday conservation behaviors such as setting lower set-point temperatures, using warm clothes in cold weather, and switching off lights significantly predicted gas and electricity consumption.54 Psychological factors are influential, particularly with respect to action-related and effectiveness knowledge.25 Householders struggle to estimate their overall energy use90 and to identify the greatest opportunities for conservation,91 while many (particularly older people) find heating controls confusing and difficult to use.92
53.
Huebner, G.M. ∙ Hamilton, I. ∙ Chalabi, Z. ...
Explaining domestic energy consumption – The comparative contribution of building factors, socio-demographics, behaviours and attitudes
Appl. Energy. 2015; 159:589-600
87.
Satre-Meloy, A.
Investigating structural and occupant drivers of annual residential electricity consumption using regularization in regression models
Energy. 2019; 174:148-168
87.
Satre-Meloy, A.
Investigating structural and occupant drivers of annual residential electricity consumption using regularization in regression models
Energy. 2019; 174:148-168
88.
Chen, C.f. ∙ Xu, X. ∙ Cao, Z. ...
Analysis of social–Psychological factors and financial incentives in demand response and residential energy behavior
Front. Energy Res. 2023; 11
89.
Frederiks, E. ∙ Stenner, K. ∙ Hobman, E.
The Socio-Demographic and Psychological Predictors of Residential Energy Consumption: A Comprehensive Review
Energies. 2015; 8:573-609
54.
McKenna, E. ∙ Few, J. ∙ Webborn, E. ...
Explaining daily energy demand in British housing using linked smart meter and socio-technical data in a bottom-up statistical model
Energy Build. 2022; 258, 111845
25.
Frick, J. ∙ Kaiser, F.G. ∙ Wilson, M.
Environmental knowledge and conservation behavior: exploring prevalence and structure in a representative sample
Pers. Indiv. Differ. 2004; 37:1597-1613
90.
Marghetis, T. ∙ Attari, S.Z. ∙ Landy, D.
Simple interventions can correct misperceptions of home energy use
Nat. Energy. 2019; 4:874-881
91.
Attari, S.Z. ∙ DeKay, M.L. ∙ Davidson, C.I. ...
Public perceptions of energy consumption and savings
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010; 107:16054-16059
92.
Lomas, K.J. ∙ Oliveira, S. ∙ Warren, P. ...
Do domestic heating controls save energy? A review of the evidence
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 93:52-75
Given the significance of building characteristics, non-habitual choices have an important influence on emissions. These include the installation of efficiency measures such as insulation and glazing, as well as investments in rooftop solar arrays and low-carbon heating systems (e.g., heat pumps). Here, household income and tenure are key variables. Income and home ownership correspond with higher energy use; however, access to capital also boosts a household’s capability to invest in one-off, impactful measures.89 In rented properties, landlords lack the incentive to invest in efficiency or renewable technologies, as it is tenants who typically pay energy bills. Tenants are reluctant to invest in property upgrades or may be contractually prevented from doing so. This “split-incentive” problem limits energy-related choice capabilities for millions of householders,93 especially in countries where home ownership is relatively low, such as Germany94 and Japan.95
89.
Frederiks, E. ∙ Stenner, K. ∙ Hobman, E.
The Socio-Demographic and Psychological Predictors of Residential Energy Consumption: A Comprehensive Review
Energies. 2015; 8:573-609
93.
Nie, H. ∙ Kemp, R. ∙ Xu, J.-H. ...
Split incentive effects on the adoption of technical and behavioral energy-saving measures in the household sector in Western Europe
Energy Pol. 2020; 140, 111424
94.
Eurostat
Distribution of Population by Tenure Status, Type of Household and Income Group
EU-SILC survey, 2023
95.
Statistics Japan
Homeownership. Homeownership｜Statistics Japan : Prefecture Comparisons
2022
Consumption of goods and services
Non-food consumption involves myriad behaviors that range from buying clothes, pets, and household goods, to services such as education. As such, there are no systematic evidence reviews spanning all consumption or shopping behaviors. While income is the strongest predictor of overall consumption, reviews of sustainable consumption find that social and individual factors are significant influences. Predictors of shopping behaviors depend on the products and services in question.14 For instance, a systematic review of sustainable fashion consumption found social norms, knowledge, and values to be key drivers,96 while adoption of “sharing economy” activities are predicted by perceptions of control, injunctive norms (perceptions of peer-approval), platform trustworthiness, and risk.97,98
14.
Ivanova, D. ∙ Barrett, J. ∙ Wiedenhofer, D. ...
Quantifying the potential for climate change mitigation of consumption options
Environ. Res. Lett. 2020; 15, 093001
96.
Dabas, C.S. ∙ Whang, C.
A systematic review of drivers of sustainable fashion consumption: 25 years of research evolution
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing. 2022; 13:151-167
97.
Akande, A. ∙ Cabral, P. ∙ Casteleyn, S.
Understanding the sharing economy and its implication on sustainability in smart cities
J. Clean. Prod. 2020; 277, 124077
98.
ter Huurne, M. ∙ Ronteltap, A. ∙ Corten, R. ...
Antecedents of trust in the sharing economy: A systematic review
J. Consum. Behav. 2017; 16:485-498
Social and economic context is important too. A representative survey of individuals in the United Kingdom and Brazil in 2019 asked respondents a series of questions about buying habits.50 Environmental concern was found to be higher in Brazil than in the United Kingdom, and individuals there were more likely to avoid buying new things and buy items with less packaging. However, these social norms are influenced in turn by material and economic factors: in Brazil, items with less packaging are often cheaper, whereas this is not the case in the United Kingdom.
50.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Capstick, S. ∙ Nash, N.
Who is reducing their material consumption and why? A cross-cultural analysis of dematerialization behaviours
Philos. Trans. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2017; 375, 20160376
The carbon impacts of shopping behaviors can hinder climate-conscious choices. Emissions “embodied” in goods and services are less visible to consumers than those associated with driving fossil fueled vehicles, for example, and carbon labeling on products is not widespread. This is one reason why awareness of the carbon emissions associated with consumption behaviors is relatively low. In fact, the most popular and best supported pro-environmental behaviors tend to have limited potential for emissions reductions.1,33 Figure 3 shows results from a global survey demonstrating a mismatch between what individuals perceive to be the most effective choices for reducing emissions and actual impacts.
1.
Ipsos
Perils of Perception
Environmental Perils, 2021
33.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Seyfang, G. ∙ O’Neill, S.
Public engagement with carbon and climate change: To what extent is the public ‘carbon capable
Global Environ. Change. 2011; 21:56-65
Influencing others
In one conceptual model of “carbon capability,” the ability to influence others is posited as the pinnacle activity for individuals seeking to take climate action.99 The ability of individuals to influence others on climate change varies according to the different roles and capacities they play in different contexts, although evidence on what predicts their capacity to influence others is limited. In personal relationships (e.g., friends, family), personality traits are likely to be important, and we know that openness, conscientiousness, and extraversion predict pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors.45,100 In a professional context, some individuals (e.g., in customer-facing, communications, human-resources, or leadership roles) can leverage greater influence over others than those in other roles.3,101,102 In this context, personality traits can again be important: conscientiousness and agreeableness are significant predictors of ethical leadership behaviors, for instance.103 However, the presence of human and social capital,104,105 organizational norms and values,106 and the strength of network ties107 all influence the ability of leaders to effect change.
99.
Wei, J. ∙ Chen, H. ∙ Cui, X. ...
Carbon capability of urban residents and its structure: Evidence from a survey of Jiangsu Province in China
Appl. Energy. 2016; 173:635-649
45.
Brick, C. ∙ Lewis, G.J.
Unearthing the “Green” Personality: Core Traits Predict Environmentally Friendly Behavior
Environ. Behav. 2016; 48:635-658
100.
Soutter, A.R.B. ∙ Bates, T.C. ∙ Mõttus, R.
Big Five and HEXACO Personality Traits, Proenvironmental Attitudes, and Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis
Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2020; 15:913-941
3.
Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Nicholas, K.A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ...
The role of high-socioeconomic-status people in locking in or rapidly reducing energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions
Nat. Energy. 2021; 6:1011-1016
101.
Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Marteau, T.M. ∙ Bauer, J.M. ...
Biodiversity conservation as a promising frontier for behavioural science
Nat. Human Behav. 2021; 5:550-556
102.
Zibarras, L.D. ∙ Coan, P.
HRM practices used to promote pro-environmental behavior: a UK survey
Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2015; 26:2121-2142
103.
Kalshoven, K. ∙ Den Hartog, D.N. ∙ De Hoogh, A.H.B.
Ethical Leader Behavior and Big Five Factors of Personality
J. Bus. Ethics. 2011; 100:349-366
104.
Choo, C.W.
Sensemaking, knowledge creation, and decision making: Organizational knowing as emergent strategy
Strategic management of intellectual capital and organizational knowledge
2006
105.
Stevenson, W.B. ∙ Radin, R.F.
Social Capital and Social Influence on the Board of Directors
J. Manag. Stud. 2009; 46:16-44
106.
Hampton, S. ∙ Blundel, R. ∙ Wahga, A. ...
Transforming small and medium-sized enterprises to address the climate emergency: The case for values-based engagement
Corp. Soc. Responsib. Environ. Manag. 2022; 29:1424-1439
107.
Centola, D.
Change: How to Make Big Things Happen
John Murray Publishers Ltd), 2021
Katherine Hayhoe29 and others28 have argued, when it comes to influencing others on climate, talking to people within and beyond one’s immediate social circles is important. In the United States, those with higher risk perceptions and knowledge of global warming are more likely to talk with family and friends about climate change.108 Holding climate conversations appears to be one of the more straightforward choices an individual might make. But social discourse is mediated by politics, norms, and complex, context-specific interpersonal dynamics. For instance, climate change is becoming increasingly polarized in many countries109,110 and on social media,111 and many commentators have expressed concern that climate change is being dragged into so called “culture wars” that are characterized by divergent views along social, political, and demographic lines.112,113
29.
Hayhoe, K.
Saving Us: A Climate Scientist’s Case for Hope and Healing in a Divided World First One
Signal Publishers/Atria Books, 2021
hardcover edition. (One Signal Publishers/Atria Books)
28.
Corner, A. ∙ Clarke, J.
Talking Climate: From Research to Practice in Public Engagement
Palgrave), 2016
108.
Ballew, M.T. ∙ Leiserowitz, A. ∙ Roser-Renouf, C. ...
Climate Change in the American Mind: Data, Tools, and Trends
Environment. 2019; 61:4-18
109.
Funk, C.
The Politics of Climate
Pew Research Center Science & Society, 2016
110.
Chinn, S. ∙ Hart, P.S. ∙ Soroka, S.
Politicization and Polarization in Climate Change News Content
Science Communication, 2020 1985-2017
111.
Falkenberg, M. ∙ Galeazzi, A. ∙ Torricelli, M. ...
Growing polarization around climate change on social media
Nat. Clim. Change. 2022; 12:1114-1121
112.
King, J. ∙ Janulewicz, L. ∙ Arcostanzo, F.
Deny, Deceive, Delay: Documenting and Responding to Climate Disinformation at COP26 and beyond
2022
113.
Bevan, L.D. ∙ Colley, T. ∙ Workman, M.
Climate change strategic narratives in the United Kingdom: Emergency, Extinction, Effectiveness
Energy Res. Social Sci. 2020; 69, 101580
Climate citizenship
Like the ability to influence others, the willingness to take part in civic activity such as voting, direct action, and investing money in environmentally sustainable funds and pensions is influenced to a great extent by individual factors. Individuals who attach personal meaning to social and political events or who exhibit high openness traits are more likely to engage in political activism,114,115,116 while participation in Fridays for Future climate strikes among Swiss students was predicted by low trust in governments, high trust in climate scientists, and faith in the success of protest for achieving change.117,118 General voting behavior is linked with personality characteristics and socio-demographic variables, although studies from the United Kingdom,119 Nigeria,120 and across the EU121 highlight how the weight of these vary in different contexts. More specific to climate citizenship, support for climate policies in the United States is unsurprisingly predicted by beliefs and attitudes toward global warming, but Republican voters who support climate action are more influenced by injunctive norms and risk perceptions than Democrats.122 In the United Kingdom, women are slightly more supportive of net-zero policies than men; older age groups have higher support for transport and consumption policies such as low-traffic neighborhoods, frequent flyer levies, and carbon taxes, while younger age groups favor policies that encourage EV uptake and dietary change.123 It is often asserted that motivated reasoning (biased information processing in accordance with prevailing beliefs) lies behind attitudes to climate change and policy support, even among individuals with high levels of scientific knowledge.124,125 However, other studies have argued that the evidence for motivated reasoning is relatively weak,126,127 and there is a need for further empirical research to inform interventions to address polarization.128
114.
Duncan, L.E. ∙ Stewart, A.J.
Personal Political Salience: The Role of Personality in Collective Identity and Action
Polit. Psychol. 2007; 28:143-164
115.
Curtin, N. ∙ Stewart, A.J. ∙ Duncan, L.E.
What Makes the Political Personal? Openness, Personal Political Salience, and Activism
J. Pers. 2010; 78:943-968
116.
Roser-Renouf, C. ∙ Maibach, E.W. ∙ Leiserowitz, A. ...
The genesis of climate change activism: from key beliefs to political action
Climatic Change. 2014; 125:163-178
117.
Cologna, V. ∙ Hoogendoorn, G. ∙ Brick, C.
To strike or not to strike? an investigation of the determinants of strike participation at the Fridays for Future climate strikes in Switzerland
PLoS One. 2021; 16, e0257296
118.
Brügger, A. ∙ Gubler, M. ∙ Steentjes, K. ...
Social Identity and Risk Perception Explain Participation in the Swiss Youth Climate Strikes
Sustainability. 2020; 12, 10605
119.
Furnham, A. ∙ Cheng, H.
Personality traits and socio-demographic variables as predictors of political interest and voting behavior in a British cohort
J. Indiv. Differ. 2019; 40:118-125
120.
Dim, E.E. ∙ Asomah, J.Y.
Socio-demographic Predictors of Political participation among women in Nigeria: Insights from Afrobarometer 2015 Data
J. Int. Wom. Stud. 2019; 20:91-105
121.
Kitanova, M.
Youth political participation in the EU: evidence from a cross-national analysis
J. Youth Stud. 2020; 23:819-836
122.
Goldberg, M.H. ∙ Gustafson, A. ∙ Ballew, M.T. ...
Identifying the most important predictors of support for climate policy in the United States
Behav. Public Policy. 2021; 5:480-502
123.
Ipsos Mori, and CAST
Net Zero Living
Ipsos Mori and the Centre for Climate Change and Social Transformation, 2022
124.
Kahan, D.M. ∙ Peters, E. ∙ Wittlin, M. ...
The polarizing impact of science literacy and numeracy on perceived climate change risks
Nat. Clim. Change. 2012; 2:732-735
125.
Drummond, C. ∙ Fischhoff, B.
Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2017; 114:9587-9592
126.
Druckman, J.N. ∙ McGrath, M.C.
The evidence for motivated reasoning in climate change preference formation
Nat. Clim. Change. 2019; 9:111-119
127.
Bayes, R. ∙ Druckman, J.N.
Motivated reasoning and climate change
Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 2021; 42:27-35
128.
Hennes, E.P. ∙ Kim, T. ∙ Remache, L.J.
A goldilocks critique of the hot cognition perspective on climate change skepticism
Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 2020; 34:142-147
There is a tendency in research that models socio-technical pathways to a more sustainable future, to emphasize the need for community-led activity at the local level, highlighting the multiple benefits associated with climate-oriented transitions.129,130,131 Examples include community ownership of renewable energy assets, car sharing, local farming cooperatives, and peer-to-peer energy trading.132 Each of these relies on abundant social capital, which is a product of multifaceted economic, social, and political variables.133
129.
Bataille, C. ∙ Waisman, H. ∙ Briand, Y. ...
Net-zero deep decarbonization pathways in Latin America: Challenges and opportunities
Energy Strategy Rev. 2020; 30, 100510
130.
Riahi, K. ∙ van Vuuren, D.P. ∙ Kriegler, E. ...
The Shared Socioeconomic Pathways and their energy, land use, and greenhouse gas emissions implications: An overview
Global Environ. Change. 2017; 42:153-168
131.
National Grid
Future Energy Scenarios 2022
2022
132.
Ford, R. ∙ Maidment, C. ∙ Vigurs, C. ...
Smart local energy systems (SLES): A framework for exploring transition, context, and impacts
Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change. 2021; 166, 120612
133.
Selman, P.
Social Capital, Sustainability and Environmental Planning
Plann. Theor. Pract. 2001; 2:13-30
Last, political regimes and governance arrangements have a direct bearing on an individual’s potential to be a good climate citizen. Autocratic regimes often prevent voting and place severe restrictions on protest, while the ability of individuals to contribute to political and policy-making processes varies significantly across democracies. In many liberal democracies, there has been an increase in climate activism in recent years. High-profile examples of direct action such as transport disruption134 and protests in art galleries135 have helped to keep climate change prominent in news media and public discourse. However, freedom to protest in many countries remains highly limited and in the United Kingdom, the 2022 Police, Crime, Sentencing, and Courts Act increased police powers to break-up and prevent protests, largely in response to climate activism. Nonetheless, even in authoritarian regimes, activism can influence politics and policy,136 as demonstrated by the easing of COVID-19 restrictions in China following protests in late 2022.137
134.
Radio New Zealand
Extinction Rebellion Protesters Arrested at Coal Protest in Dunedin
RNZ, 2021
135.
Gayle, D.
Just Stop Oil Activists Throw Soup at Van Gogh’s Sunflowers
The Guardian, 2022
136.
Wu, F. ∙ Martus, E.
Contested environmentalism: the politics of waste in China and Russia
Environ. Polit. 2021; 30:493-512
137.
Huang, K. ∙ Han, M.
Did China’s Street Protests End Harsh COVID Policies? Council on Foreign Relations
2022
Closing the gap: Enabling choices for climate action
To achieve net-zero emissions, there is a need for transformation in each of the six domains of climate-related activity. This section outlines the type and scale of change needed to enable individuals to make choices for climate action. We identify areas of everyday life where attitudes, motivations, and social norms are becoming more environmentally oriented, and physical factors are increasingly enabling climate action. Domains of choice where high-emissions behaviors remain entrenched and resistant to change are also highlighted.
Food and diet choices
As they are, Western diets are not compatible with a stable climate. It has been estimated that the food-related emissions of those consuming Western diets could be reduced by up to 40% through individual choices such as reducing meat consumption and reducing food waste.138 Neither are they healthy: in the United Kingdom, individuals eat more than twice the amount of meat considered safe.139 However, recent polling there found strong support for substituting red for white meat, and reducing overall meat consumption and food waste.140 Given the influence of individual and social factors on dietary behaviors, a key challenge is to shift the social and psychological norms that embed food choices into everyday life.
138.
Green, R. ∙ Milner, J. ∙ Dangour, A.D. ...
The potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the UK through healthy and realistic dietary change
Climatic Change. 2015; 129:253-265
139.
Aleksandrowicz, L. ∙ Green, R. ∙ Joy, E.J.M. ...
The Impacts of Dietary Change on Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Land Use, Water Use, and Health: A Systematic Review
PLoS One. 2016; 11, e0165797
140.
CAST
The Road to Net Zero: UK Public Preferences for Low-Carbon Lifestyles
Centre for Climate Change and Social Transformations, 2022
There is a growing body of research focused on how to encourage more climate-friendly food choices.141 Two independent meta-analyses have found choice architecture interventions (or “nudges”) have significant effects in the food domain,62,142 although approaches are context specific. For instance in restaurant settings, effective social norm interventions include encouraging the use of “doggy bags”143 for reducing food waste, and “dynamic norm” messages that indicate that other people are reducing meat in their diets can also help to promote more sustainable food choices.144 On the other hand, a systematic review found mixed results for different interventions designed to reduce meat consumption,145 and a trial of 59 interventions found that while information provision was effective at changing choices in virtual environments, this did not translate into actual diet behaviors.146 Effect sizes are more robust when it comes to changing defaults such as reducing portion sizes147 and serving vegetarian meals at catered events.148 However, as a behavioral intervention, changing defaults risks consumer backlash, especially where there is insufficient trust, or where the choice-architect’s motivations are unclear or unsupported.149,150 Nonetheless, public acceptance of low-meat alternatives appears to be growing in many countries151,152 and in different contexts: even Burger King is experimenting with changing its default menu options to plant-based burgers.153
141.
Abrahamse, W.
How to Effectively Encourage Sustainable Food Choices: A Mini-Review of Available Evidence
Front. Psychol. 2020; 11:589674
62.
Mertens, S. ∙ Herberz, M. ∙ Hahnel, U.J.J. ...
The effectiveness of nudging: A meta-analysis of choice architecture interventions across behavioral domains
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2022; 119, e2107346118
142.
Arno, A. ∙ Thomas, S.
The efficacy of nudge theory strategies in influencing adult dietary behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis
BMC Publ. Health. 2016; 16:676
143.
Giaccherini, M. ∙ Gilli, M. ∙ Mancinelli, S. ...
Nudging food waste decisions at restaurants
Eur. Econ. Rev. 2021; 135, 103722
144.
Sparkman, G. ∙ Walton, G.M.
Dynamic Norms Promote Sustainable Behavior, Even if It Is Counternormative
Psychol. Sci. 2017; 28:1663-1674
145.
Bianchi, F. ∙ Garnett, E. ∙ Dorsel, C. ...
Restructuring physical micro-environments to reduce the demand for meat: a systematic review and qualitative comparative analysis
Lancet Planet. Health. 2018; 2:e384-e397
146.
Bianchi, F. ∙ Dorsel, C. ∙ Garnett, E. ...
Interventions targeting conscious determinants of human behaviour to reduce the demand for meat: a systematic review with qualitative comparative analysis
Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Activ. 2018; 15:102
147.
WRAP
Portion Size Is the Main Reason for Plate Waste when We Eat Out
WRAP, 2023
148.
Behavioural Insights Team
A Menu for Change: Using Behavioural Science to Promote Sustainable Diets Around the World
2020
149.
Brown, C. ∙ Krishna, A.
The Skeptical Shopper: A Metacognitive Account for the Effects of Default Options on Choice
J. Consum. Res. 2004; 31:529-539
150.
Krijnen, J.M.T. ∙ Tannenbaum, D. ∙ Fox, C.R.
Choice architecture 2.0: Behavioral policy as an implicit social interaction
Behavioral Science & Policy. 2017; 3
i–18
151.
Hansen, P.G. ∙ Schilling, M. ∙ Malthesen, M.S.
Nudging healthy and sustainable food choices: three randomized controlled field experiments using a vegetarian lunch-default as a normative signal
J. Public Health. 2021; 43:392-397
152.
Meier, J. ∙ Andor, M.A. ∙ Doebbe, F. ...
Can Green Defaults Reduce Meat Consumption?
2021
153.
Buxton, A.
Tables Turned: Customers Had to Request Meat at Burger King Austria as Plant-Based Became the Default
Plant Based News, 2022
One barrier to individuals making climate-conscious food choices is the lack of awareness relating to the carbon impacts of foodstuffs.154,155 Carbon labeling for food items attracted significant interest from grocery retailers in the 2000s,156 but progress has been limited by the difficulty of calculating supply chain emissions.157 The idea is once again gaining traction,158 helped by the digitalization of agriculture, which is enabling greater product traceability and emissions estimates.159
154.
Wunderlich, S. ∙ Smoller, M.
Consumer awareness and knowledge about food sources and possible environmental impact
Int. J. EI. 2019; 2:85-96
155.
Borghesi, G. ∙ Stefanini, R. ∙ Vignali, G.
Are consumers aware of products’ environmental impacts? Different results between life cycle assessment data and consumers’ opinions: the case study of organic Parmigiano Reggiano and its packaging
Int. J. Food Eng. 2022; 18:185-192
156.
Boardman, B.
Carbon labelling: too complex or will it transform our buying?
Signif. (Oxf). 2008; 5:168-171
157.
Schaefer, F. ∙ Blanke, M.
Opportunities and Challenges of Carbon Footprint, Climate or CO2 Labelling for Horticultural Products
Erwerbsobstbau. 2014; 56:73-80
158.
Taufique, K.M.R. ∙ Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Dietz, T. ...
Revisiting the promise of carbon labelling
Nat. Clim. Change. 2022; 12:132-140
159.
Schneider, U.A. ∙ Rasche, L. ∙ Jantke, K.
Farm-level digital monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions from livestock systems could facilitate control, optimisation and labelling
Journal of Sustainable Organic Agricultural system. 2019; 69:9-12
In emerging economies, there is a concerning trend toward increasing meat in diets,160 with consequences for increasing methane emissions (from ruminant livestock) and deforestation.161 Technological innovations such as lab-grown meat may help to mitigate this trend, but are likely to be insufficient alone.162 There is a need for upstream changes to enable pro-environmental food choices. In many countries, subsidy regimens and international trade deals actively encourage emissions-intensive livestock farming, and a carbon tax on the highest impact foods is politically divisive.140 Recalibrating complex food systems toward more sustainable outcomes is a major challenge, requiring collaboration among governments, the food industry, and civil society.163
160.
Gandhi, V.P. ∙ Zhou, Z.
Food demand and the food security challenge with rapid economic growth in the emerging economies of India and China
Food Res. Int. 2014; 63:108-124
161.
Karstensen, J. ∙ Peters, G.P. ∙ Andrew, R.M.
Attribution of CO2 emissions from Brazilian deforestation to consumers between 1990 and 2010
Environ. Res. Lett. 2013; 8, 024005
162.
Fassler, J.
Lab-grown Meat Is Supposed to Be Inevitable. The Science Tells a Different Story
The Counter, 2021
140.
CAST
The Road to Net Zero: UK Public Preferences for Low-Carbon Lifestyles
Centre for Climate Change and Social Transformations, 2022
163.
Zurek, M. ∙ Hebinck, A. ∙ Selomane, O.
Climate change and the urgency to transform food systems
Science. 2022; 376:1416-1421
Enabling low-carbon transport choices
In Europe, the transport sector is responsible for nearly 25% of greenhouse gas emissions, and emissions have remained stubbornly high compared with other sectors such as power and industry that have seen reductions.164 Consistent with analysis of behavioral determinants,79 most research points to the need for investment in low-carbon transport infrastructure, which is currently insufficient for driving emissions reductions.165,166
164.
European Environment Agency
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transport in Europe
2022
79.
Javaid, A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ∙ Bamberg, S.
Determinants of low-carbon transport mode adoption: systematic review of reviews
Environ. Res. Lett. 2020; 15, 103002
165.
IEA
World Energy Investment 2022
2022
166.
OECD
Investing in Climate, Investing in Growth
2017
In the 2000s, the potential of soft measures to change behavior attracted interest from some European governments, and the United Kingdom’s Department of Transport commissioned a major study into the potential of “soft measures” to effect traffic reduction. It found that interventions such as the promotion of workplace or individualized travel plans, car sharing schemes, and awareness campaigns have potential to reduce national road traffic levels by around 11%, and up to 21% of peak urban traffic.167 Since then, several innovations driven by digital technologies, such as app-enabled shared mobility, telework, and online shopping have reduced barriers to implementing “soft” measures; and yet evidence from systematic reviews indicates limited impact to date,79 while road traffic has steadily risen across Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries.168,169
167.
Cairns, S. ∙ Sloman, L. ∙ Newson, C. ...
Smarter Choices: Assessing the Potential to Achieve Traffic Reduction Using ‘Soft Measures
Transp. Rev. 2008; 28:593-618
79.
Javaid, A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ∙ Bamberg, S.
Determinants of low-carbon transport mode adoption: systematic review of reviews
Environ. Res. Lett. 2020; 15, 103002
168.
Mock, P.
Decoupling Emissions from Growing Traffic Volume
International Council on Clean Transportation, 2012
169.
Department for Transport
Road Traffic Estimates: Great Britain 2021
2022
There is growing agreement among transport researchers that overall demand reduction will be required to meet climate goals.170 Figure 4 depicts the influential “avoid, shift, improve” framework that emphases the need to first reduce mobility demand, then encourage the greater use of public transport and active modes, before focusing on fuel switching for private vehicles. In Europe, however, most policies in this domain focus on promoting the adoption of EVs and a modal shift to public transport.164 Crucially, the avoidance of travel often falls outside the scope of transport policy. Digitalization is a key driver, but the benefits of digital services are uneven and they risk compounding social exclusion and rural deprivation.171 Other interventions to drive down travel demand include creating “15-min neighborhoods” by prioritizing access to local amenities in planning and development policy.172
170.
Brand, C. ∙ Jillian, A. ∙ Greg, M.
The Role of Energy Demand Reduction in Achieving Net-Zero in the UK: Transport and Mobility
Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions, 2021
164.
European Environment Agency
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transport in Europe
2022
171.
Castellazzi, L. ∙ Bertoldi, P. ∙ Economidou, M.
Overcoming the Split Incentive Barrier in the Building Sector
Publications Office of the European Union, 2017
172.
Moreno, C. ∙ Allam, Z. ∙ Chabaud, D. ...
Introducing the “15-Minute City”: Sustainability, Resilience and Place Identity in Future Post-Pandemic Cities
Smart Cities. 2021; 4:93-111
Figure 4 The Avoid, Shift, Improve framework helps policy-makers to prioritize investments for transport emissions reduction
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted travel behaviors, but there is mixed evidence about its effect on long-term habits. The adoption of teleworking practices has increased dramatically in many countries173 and emerging evidence suggests it may have lasting effects.174 In the United Kingdom, car usage remains below 2019 levels and there has been a substantial increase in walking for shorter trips.175 However, the use of passenger vehicles in the United States had recovered to pre-pandemic levels by the end of 2021.176 Some cities have capitalized on the disruption caused by the pandemic, leveraging this “moment of change” to reallocate road space for active travel. Many deployed “pop-up” bike lanes during the pandemic,177 and Sydney, Australia, and Mexico City, Mexico, are among those that have since made these permanent.178
173.
OECD
Teleworking in the COVID-19 Pandemic
2021
174.
Office for National Statistics
Is Hybrid Working Here to Stay?
2022
175.
Anable, J. ∙ Llinos, B. ∙ Docherty, I. ...
Less Is More: Changing Travel in a Post-pandemic Society
Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions, 2022
176.
Bureau of Transportation Statistics
Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2021
US Department of Transportation, 2021
177.
Kraus, S. ∙ Koch, N.
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Besides investing in active travel infrastructure and public transport provision, urban municipalities have a role to play in addressing social and cultural barriers. The Netherlands boasts world-leading cycling infrastructure, but participation remains lower among women and ethnic minorities than other groups. From 2015 to 2021, the City of Leiden, Netherlands, launched a campaign called Flink Fietsen (translation: “cool cycling”) aiming to normalize cycling among women and older people and in poor weather. In the United States, Seattle, Portland, and San Francisco have sought to overcome the stigma of bus travel by equivalizing fares with light rail, introducing bus lanes, and giving routes equal prominence on public transit maps.179,180
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After decades of emissions stasis, there is an urgent need to accelerate transport decarbonization, and policy-makers cannot afford to rely on the shift to EVs. Direct policy interventions, such as the reallocation of road space, restrictions on private car access in cities, or the introduction of congestion charging, are needed in urban environments, but they often generate controversy that can halt progress and temper the ambitions of political leaders. However, evidence suggests that individuals tend to resist change, until it has happened. For instance, Figure 5 shows that support for London’s congestion charge grew following its introduction. Climate-conscious policy-makers should be reassured, and hold their nerve.
Energy consumption in the home
Evidence has found that habitual domestic energy behaviors can be influenced by social norms, feedback, and smart technologies. Studies led by US utility Opower found that informing customers about the average consumption by neighbors and similar households led to reductions of 2%,182 while visual and accessible feedback via in-home displays has been shown to reduce electricity and gas consumption by 1%–3% in large control studies.183,184 Given that heating controls are a barrier to energy conservation,92 there are opportunities to enhance user capabilities. A proliferation of smart thermostats and zonal control systems in recent years has led to design improvements,185 although evidence of their effectiveness for energy savings is mixed.92,186 How installers (e.g., plumbers, heating engineers) select and explain controls to users also has a significant effect on how effectively they are used.187,188,189
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Energy Build. 2015; 91:199-209
Progress toward enabling non-habitual, one-off choices for improving the energy performance of housing varies internationally. In Europe for instance, the differing uptake of energy efficiency and renewable technologies can be largely explained by the ambition and effectiveness of national policy, rather than economic cost-benefit.190,191,192 However, the energy price crisis that began in 2021 is rapidly changing the economics of energy efficiency and renewable generation, and demand for domestic photovoltaic installations is increasing, representing 28% of all new solar capacity globally in 2021.193 China is driving this trend, with installations expected to reach 108 GW in 2022. In Europe, the market for domestic heat pumps is growing. Having already achieved high penetration in Scandinavia,194 deployment is accelerating in France and Italy.195 However in the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and the United States, where natural gas dominates domestic heating supply, there remain a series of barriers to householders choosing heat pumps, including high installation costs, skill shortages, and low public awareness.196 Alongside the challenge of decarbonizing heating, demand for cooling is projected to triple by 2050, driven by population growth in (increasingly) warm climates and changing comfort preferences.197 While co-deployment of solar photovoltaics will help to offset the substantial increase in peak electricity demand, the International Energy Agency stresses the need for appliance efficiency to limit emissions.198
190.
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191.
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192.
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193.
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The split-incentive problem remains an intransigent barrier in the rented sector, but the introduction of Minimum Energy Efficiency Standards in the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and parts of the United States is a promising development.171,199 Germany—an outlier for home ownership compared with comparable countries—is using its recently introduced carbon pricing mechanism to incentivize landlords to invest in building energy upgrades.200,201
171.
Castellazzi, L. ∙ Bertoldi, P. ∙ Economidou, M.
Overcoming the Split Incentive Barrier in the Building Sector
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200.
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201.
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Sustainable consumption of goods and services
The avoid, shift, improve framework applies to the consumption of non-food products. The most impactful choices are those involving consuming fewer products overall, followed by buying second-hand items or paying for services (such as car clubs over car ownership), and finally improving the quality, longevity, and sourcing of goods we do buy.
While in some advanced economies a trend toward minimalism and dematerialization has emerged in recent years, these practices remain exceptional,202 and outweighed by economic forces in which consumption is seen as a key driver for growth and is encouraged by a raft of government policies and commercial activities. Similarly, while public concern for the impact of plastics on marine life in recent years raised pressure on retailers to reduce packaging and single-use items, progress remains limited to certain products such as straws and cutlery,203 and behaviors such as buying products with less packaging50 or using recycled materials204 remain uncommon. Nonetheless, with strong public support for bans on single-use plastics,205 there is potential for regulation to drive down unsustainable consumption.
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Other key enablers of climate-friendly consumption choices are the development of the sharing and the circular economy. Polling from the European Union206 and the United Kingdom140 has found broad public support for these, but there is a need for innovation in business models and practices, aided by digitalization and the development of new materials and recycling methods. However, it is also essential that innovations such as paying for services or peer-to-peer trading are made accessible to wider publics, including those without digital capabilities.207 Moreover, evidence from a UK study indicates that knowledge and awareness of sustainable consumption practices remain low,140 and consumers find it difficult to distinguish between the environmental claims of one company’s products over another.208 A recent global study found that 40% of environmental claims made online could be potentially misleading.209 Examples include vague use of language such as “eco” and “green” without accompanying evidence, use of unaccredited environmental labels, and the omission of information relating to emissions or pollution. Advertising standards agencies, consumer protection bodies, and anti-monopoly authorities have a key role to play in monitoring and regulating “greenwash.”
206.
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Given the mismatch between public perception and reality associated with environmental behaviors (Figure 3), there is a need to enhance awareness and “carbon literacy,” especially with respect to less visible, embodied emissions. Achieving this will require a range of interventions, from product carbon labeling and increased media coverage (see next section), to school-aged education and training.210
210.
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Leveraging the power of influence
Building the capacity of individuals to influence others toward pro-climate choices begins with awareness raising. The news media plays a crucial role. People who consume climate change news are more concerned about climate change, consider themselves to be more knowledgeable about the issue, and—importantly—tend to feel more empowered.211 However, as a driver of public concern, news media is secondary to elite cues, protest, and extreme weather events, which are among those sources that drive climate coverage in the news.212 A repeated finding is that the provision of factual information about climate change fails to influence opinion,212 but when given information about the views of the scientific community, individuals are more likely to support climate policies. In other words, people relate to people, not facts.213 In the context of increasingly polarized attitudes toward climate change, there is a need for interventions to enable more open and constructive discourse among diverse individuals. For influential institutions such as the news media, combating mis- and dis-information is essential to counteract polarization.112 Greenpeace, The Nature Conservancy, and even the World Economic Forum have produced guides to help individuals talk about climate change with others in a variety of contexts.214,215,216
211.
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How We Follow Climate Change: Climate News Use and Attitudes in Eight Countries
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Elite cues, media coverage, and public concern: an integrated path analysis of public opinion on climate change, 2001–2013
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Carmichael, J.T. ∙ Brulle, R.J.
Elite cues, media coverage, and public concern: an integrated path analysis of public opinion on climate change, 2001–2013
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213.
Deryugina, T. ∙ Shurchkov, O.
The Effect of Information Provision on Public Consensus about Climate Change
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King, J. ∙ Janulewicz, L. ∙ Arcostanzo, F.
Deny, Deceive, Delay: Documenting and Responding to Climate Disinformation at COP26 and beyond
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214.
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How to Talk about Climate Change with Friends and Family
Greenpeace UK, 2021
215.
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Why We Need a New Social Contract for the 21st Century
World Economic Forum, 2022
216.
The Nature Conservancy
How to Talk about Climate Change
2018
The workplace is a crucial site of (two-way) influence. This can be exerted by individuals in management and leadership roles through human-resource management practices such as rewards, education, and training102; green initiatives217; or values-based activities.106,218 With respect to environmental behaviors, there is relatively little research on home-to-work and work-to-home spillover, and empirical work to date has shown mixed results.219 For instance, a social-marketing experiment examining the effects of sustainable food interventions in the workplace found that positive spillover effects can be produced, but depend on various individual and material factors.220 However, it is clear that pressure from employees and jobseekers is driving many organizations to adopt more sustainable practices,221,222,223 and with unemployment at historically low levels in many OECD countries,224 evidence that green businesses find it easier to recruit and retain staff is helping to drive action on climate change by corporations.225
102.
Zibarras, L.D. ∙ Coan, P.
HRM practices used to promote pro-environmental behavior: a UK survey
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Practice-ing behaviour change: Applying social practice theory to pro-environmental behaviour change
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Transforming small and medium-sized enterprises to address the climate emergency: The case for values-based engagement
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Shaw, C. ∙ Corner, A.
Using Narrative Workshops to socialise the climate debate: Lessons from two case studies – centre-right audiences and the Scottish public
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Verfuerth, C. ∙ Gregory-Smith, D.
Spillover of pro-environmental behaviour
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Reducing meat consumption at work and at home: facilitators and barriers that influence contextual spillover
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Fenton, A.
Millennials Are Looking for Greener Places to Work
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Climate Quitting - Younger Workers Voting with Their Feet on Employer’s ESG Commitments
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Employees Demand that We Become More Sustainable
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Sproull, D.
New Study Shows Employees Seek and Stay Loyal to Greener Companies. swytchX
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Becoming climate citizens
Different trends enable and constrain climate citizenship. Climate change has (finally) entered mainstream political debate, meaning that it is easier than ever for voters to choose political candidates based on their climate stance. In many countries, climate action is no longer a partisan issue, although concern remains higher among left-wing voters211; and in the United States and Brazil, where climate policies have global ramifications, it continues to be politically divisive.226 Addressing public polarization on climate change is essential in order to build consensus support for action. Different moral framings,227 values-based engagement,228,229 use of imagery,230 and targeted provision of information231 can help to counteract polarization. While political parties, corporate branding and communications agencies, and news media outlets may hold the greatest sway in countering polarization through public engagement and eradicating mis-information, these pivotal actors respond to the choices that individuals make as consumers (e.g., of media) and as organizational and political activists.3,223,232,233,234
211.
Ejaz, W. ∙ Mukherjee, M. ∙ Fletcher, R. ...
How We Follow Climate Change: Climate News Use and Attitudes in Eight Countries
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226.
Tharoor, I.
Analysis | Bolsonaro, Trump and the Nationalists Ignoring Climate Disaster
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Wolsko, C. ∙ Ariceaga, H. ∙ Seiden, J.
Red, white, and blue enough to be green: Effects of moral framing on climate change attitudes and conservation behaviors
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Corner, A. ∙ Markowitz, E. ∙ Pidgeon, N.
Public engagement with climate change: the role of human values
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Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Corner, A.
Tools for a new climate conversation: A mixed-methods study of language for public engagement across the political spectrum
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O’Neill, S.J. ∙ Smith, N.
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McGrath, M.C.
Experiments on problems of climate change
Advances in Experimental Political Science
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3.
Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Nicholas, K.A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ...
The role of high-socioeconomic-status people in locking in or rapidly reducing energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions
Nat. Energy. 2021; 6:1011-1016
223.
Gaskell, A.
Employees Demand that We Become More Sustainable
Forbes, 2021
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Borghesi, R.
Employee political affiliation as a driver of corporate social responsibility intensity
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233.
Fisher, D.R. ∙ Nasrin, S.
Climate activism and its effects
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Bolsen, T. ∙ Shapiro, M.A.
The US News Media, Polarization on Climate Change, and Pathways to Effective Communication
Environmental Communication. 2018; 12:149-163
Recent trends are making it easier for individuals to participate in climate action at multiple levels of governance. Both national and local governments are increasingly employing methods of deliberative and participative democracy, diversifying the ways in which citizens’ voices are heard.235,236,237 However, while citizens panels or assemblies can represent a cross-section of views on climate, they do not enable mass participation. Examples of “e-democracy” include online petitions and deliberative opinion polling that can enable individuals to engage more actively in the political process.
235.
UCL
“Let the People Decide” – Is Participatory Democracy the Answer to the Climate Crisis? Global Governance Institute
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236.
Willis, R.
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237.
Boswell, J. ∙ Dean, R. ∙ Smith, G.
Integrating citizen deliberation into climate governance: Lessons on robust design from six climate assemblies
Public Administration n/a. 2022; 101:182-200
Digital technologies help connect communities at multiple scales, enabling pro-environmental solutions such as peer-to-peer energy trading.238 It is easier than ever (for those with digital capabilities) to engage in grassroots climate action. This is also being supported by the global trend toward greater autarky that has emerged in response to supply chain disruption, trade wars, and a focus on energy and resource security by national governments. Whether this trend has negative ramifications for global cooperation on climate is yet to be seen, but in the meantime “slowbalization” is bringing a renewed focus on local and community solutions, boosting opportunities for participation in sustainability initiatives.239 Building the social capital that is needed for such projects to be successful can be difficult, but trends such as telecommuting and increased part-time working are helping, as residents invest more of their time and money in the local community.240 Directing these investments toward climate action can generate positive feedback loops: individuals getting involved in renewable energy projects, farming cooperatives, or circular economy activities can help to enhance social capital, boost the local economy, and build the local capabilities that enable further climate action.
238.
Soto, E.A. ∙ Bosman, L.B. ∙ Wollega, E. ...
Peer-to-peer energy trading: A review of the literature
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239.
Longa, R.D.
Urban Infrastructure: Globalization/Slowbalization
Springer Nature, 2023
240.
Sillito
Tuesday to Thursday Is the New Office Working Week, Data Suggests
BBC News, 2023
Toward an ecology of choice for climate action
Individual choices are at the sharp end of climate action, with the potential to drive down emissions and keep global temperature rise within safe limits. Identifying six domains of choice for climate action, this review has shown that the capabilities to make choices for climate are unevenly distributed among populations, and depend on individual, social, material, physical, and political factors, which combine in complex ways, depending on context. Choices are thus best conceived as part of an ecology of decision-making with myriad influences. To achieve climate goals, all elements of the ecology must be addressed through a range of interventions, including information provision, social marketing, choice architecture, economic measures, infrastructure change, and regulation (see Figure 6). There is a tendency in behavior change scholarship and policy discourse to focus on so called “downstream” interventions: those focused on educating, persuading and encouraging individuals to make more sustainable everyday consumption choices5,241 However, as this review has demonstrated, individual consumption behaviors are influenced by a range of social, physical, and political factors that can constrain or enable pro-environmental choice capabilities. Extending the metaphor of a river-based ecosystem, there is a need to design and implement more midstream and upstream interventions. Midstream interventions relate to the “choice environment,” where actors such as businesses, service providers, and local governments can act to make sustainable options easier, more available, and socially acceptable.241 Midstream initiatives might also identify “moments of change,” such as when individuals move home, start new jobs, or when energy-intensive appliances breakdown, designing timely interventions to take advantage of habit discontinuity and enable individuals to establish more sustainable routines.5 Upstream activities involve substantive change to the structures and systems that set the conditions and context for individual choice, and are typically considered the domain of government departments and market regulators. However, individuals have significant agency for shaping the success of interventions at all levels, acting in different capacities.
5.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Poortinga, W. ∙ Capstick, S.
Behaviour change to address climate change
Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2021; 42:76-81
241.
Behavioural Insights Team
How to Build a Net Zero Society: Using Behavioural Insights to Decarbonise Home Energy, Transport, Food, and Material Consumption
2023
241.
Behavioural Insights Team
How to Build a Net Zero Society: Using Behavioural Insights to Decarbonise Home Energy, Transport, Food, and Material Consumption
2023
5.
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Poortinga, W. ∙ Capstick, S.
Behaviour change to address climate change
Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2021; 42:76-81
For upstream interventions, individuals in positions of leadership can influence systemic change, while as this review has shown, activism (within organizational settings and the public realm), and political participation can help to reshape the terms of debate on climate change, and accelerate policy and action. The choices individuals make as organizational members are key for shaping the midstream choice environment. These include effecting change within business or public sector organizations; helping to set environmental policies and targets in line with national and global climate targets10,242; volunteering in local initiatives to enhance nature recovery or facilitate the sharing economy; or spreading the word about the need for climate action among sports, religious, or cultural groups. Last, while individual consumption choices have the most immediate potential to reduce carbon emissions in the four domains of food, transport, domestic energy, and shopping, individuals can also help to accelerate downstream change when acting as economic and social agents. One-off, high-impact choices such as choosing to invest in rooftop solar, renewable heating systems, or even switching pension and savings to sustainable providers can deliver significant emissions savings for individuals, but when coupled with choices to share experiences of making low-carbon choices and evangelize about their benefits, these can have catalyzing effects.3
10.
Walenta, J.
The making of the corporate carbon footprint: the politics behind emission scoping
Journal of Cultural Economy. 2021; 14:533-548
242.
Walenta, J.
Climate risk assessments and science-based targets: A review of emerging private sector climate action tools
WIREs Clim. Change. 2020; 11:e628
3.
Nielsen, K.S. ∙ Nicholas, K.A. ∙ Creutzig, F. ...
The role of high-socioeconomic-status people in locking in or rapidly reducing energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions
Nat. Energy. 2021; 6:1011-1016
To meet the scale of the challenge posed by climate change, there is a need for transformation in the lifestyles led by individuals across much of the world. Choice is a central component of this transformation, and this review has highlighted the power of decision-making that extends beyond individual consumption behavior. There is a need for change among systems of provision and governance, businesses and communities, and in social and cultural norms that each set the context for individual decision-making. Individuals acting as citizens, influencers, investors, professionals, and consumers hold the key to delivering this change.
Acknowledgments
This research has been enabled by funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) grant ref: ES/V015133/1. Funding has also been received from ES/S012257/1. We thank the peer reviewers for their detailed and constructive comments in preparing this manuscript for publication.
Author contributions
Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, S.H. and L.W. Writing – Original Draft, S.H. Writing – Review & Editing, L.W.
Declaration of interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
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KPMG, 2023
Gaskell, A.
Employees Demand that We Become More Sustainable
Forbes, 2021
Sproull, D.
New Study Shows Employees Seek and Stay Loyal to Greener Companies. swytchX
2019
Tharoor, I.
Analysis | Bolsonaro, Trump and the Nationalists Ignoring Climate Disaster
Washington Post, 2019
Wolsko, C. ∙ Ariceaga, H. ∙ Seiden, J.
Red, white, and blue enough to be green: Effects of moral framing on climate change attitudes and conservation behaviors
J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 2016; 65:7-19
Corner, A. ∙ Markowitz, E. ∙ Pidgeon, N.
Public engagement with climate change: the role of human values
WIREs Clim. Change. 2014; 5:411-422
Whitmarsh, L. ∙ Corner, A.
Tools for a new climate conversation: A mixed-methods study of language for public engagement across the political spectrum
Global Environ. Change. 2017; 42:122-135
McGrath, M.C.
Experiments on problems of climate change
Advances in Experimental Political Science
Cambridge University Press, 2020; 606-629
Borghesi, R.
Employee political affiliation as a driver of corporate social responsibility intensity
Appl. Econ. 2018; 50:2117-2132
Bolsen, T. ∙ Shapiro, M.A.
The US News Media, Polarization on Climate Change, and Pathways to Effective Communication
Environmental Communication. 2018; 12:149-163
UCL
“Let the People Decide” – Is Participatory Democracy the Answer to the Climate Crisis? Global Governance Institute
2022
Willis, R.
Too Hot to Handle?: The Democratic Challenge of Climate Change
Bristol University Press, 2020
Boswell, J. ∙ Dean, R. ∙ Smith, G.
Integrating citizen deliberation into climate governance: Lessons on robust design from six climate assemblies
Public Administration n/a. 2022; 101:182-200
Soto, E.A. ∙ Bosman, L.B. ∙ Wollega, E. ...
Peer-to-peer energy trading: A review of the literature
Appl. Energy. 2021; 283, 116268
Behavioural Insights Team
How to Build a Net Zero Society: Using Behavioural Insights to Decarbonise Home Energy, Transport, Food, and Material Consumption
2023
Walenta, J.
Climate risk assessments and science-based targets: A review of emerging private sector climate action tools
WIREs Clim. Change. 2020; 11:e628
