Thomas Kamps - Model Jet Engines - 190037191X

odel

THIRD

EDITION

IY

THOM S

K MPS

THE

MODELLER S

WORLD

S~

~

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Model

THIRD

EDITION

BY

THOM S

K MPS

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©

Allflage

1995

by

Verlag

mrTechnik

lind

Handwerk

Postfach

227,i,

76492

Baden-Baden English Language

©

1995 Traplet Puhlications

Limited

Translated

fmm

the

o.-iginal

German by

Kcith

Thomas Technical

support

by Tom

Wilkinson

2005 Traplet

Puhlications

Ltd

All

rights reserved. All tradc::marks

and

rc gisterc d

names acknowledged.

No

part

of

this

book

may

be copied

.

reproduced

or

transmitted

in

any form

without the

written

consent

of

the

Puhlishers

.

The

information

in this

book

is

tnle

to the

best

of our

knowledge

at

the

time

of

compilation

.

Recommendations are

made

without

any guarantee implied

or

otherwise

,

on the

part

of

the author

or

publisher

,

who

also disclaim

any

liability

incurred

in

connection with

the

use

of

data

or

specific information

contained within

this publication.

First

published by Traplet

Puhlications

Limited

1995

Second

Edition

2002

Third

Edition

2005

Traplet

HOllse.

Pendragon

Close

, Malvern,

Worcestershire.

WRI4

IGA

United

Kingdom

.

ISBN 1

9003

71 91 X

Technical drawings

by Let:

Wisnlale

Front

COI er: The

Wren

il1W44 is

current~J

tbe smallest production

model

aircraft gas

turfJine

-

a

man

ei

o

miniatllrisatioll

.

Back

COl er:

Two PST

600R

gas

turbines

power

Dtll id

Law s

1 :14

Tomcat

..

\J

B I I A 1

Printed

by

Wa

Fai

Graphic

Arts

Printing

Co

.

Hung

Kung


bout the uthor

T

homas

Kamps,

DipL-Kaufmann

approx

.

G

equiv



alent

: B.Sc.

busine

s~

studies), born

19

70.

The

author

s liking

for

technology stretches

back

as far

as

he

can

remember.

No

sweets

or

chocolate

in

his

hristma~

stocking

: it

w ~

full

of

electrical

and

mechani

cal

compon

ents.

Following his practical inclinations

,

he

converted the

family

cellar

workshop

first

into

a

preci



sion

engine

e

ring manufacturing

workshop

,

and

subse



quently into an

engine

testing

station.

He

is

lucky

-

his

neighbour

s art:

very

sympathetic

towards

his

hobby

. His

practical

Gtpahilities

are matched

by

his

theoreti

cal

understanding

-

as witness

the

efficient

,

smooth-nm

ning

engine

s

he

has made,

a

number

of

published

articles

,

and

not

least

this

book.

Currently

he

is living in

Zurich/Switzerland

and works

in a

major

Swiss

hank

.

n

addition

to

modelling

he

enjoys

in his

leisur

e time,

reading

,

skiing

and

mnning

.


oreword

T

he

idea

of

the

gas

turbine

can

be

traced back to

a

patent

filed

by

the Frenchman

Guillaume

in

the

year

1921,

and

is

therefore quite

ok .

However

, it

was

many

yt

:

ars

before

it

proved

possible

to

pm

the

prin

Ciple

into

pr.tctice in

the

form

of

the

jet

engine

.

In

the

late

nineteen-thirties Hans

-

Joachim

Pabst

von Ohain

and

Sir

Frank

Whittle

succeeded

virtually

simultaneously

in applying

the

principle

to

constmct

a

working

engine.

t

has taken

us

modell

e

rs

a

great deal

more

time

to

bring

the

idea

to

fmition

.

Too complex and

too much

trouble

-

that was

always

the

verdict

.

Now

and

then

rumours

of

successful

model

-

scak

gas

turbin

es

filtered

to the outside

world

but in

many cases

the

engines

were

only capable

of

running

when their constructor

was

dreaming

. As a

result

we

in

the

model

world were tmly

aston

ished

to

learn

that amateurs had

acnlally

managed to produce

working

jet

engines

using

relatively

straightforward

methods

.

The

key

to success

lay

not

so

much

in

high-level

precision manufacture.

but

in simplicity

and

careful

matching

of

individual

components.

As

Kurt Schreckling

hiL i

shown with

his

engine

s.

if

the

design

is

right.

then

it

is

possible

to

uSt: a

wooden compressor

wheel and

still

achieve

a

thrust

:

weight

r.ttio

comparable

to

that

of

a fullsize aircraft jet

engine

.

However

how

do we

go about

designing

a

working

jet engine?

Wllat

special characteristics have to

be

considered?

How do

these

engines

work

,

anyway?

This

book

attempts

to

answer

th

ese

questions

and

many

others

.

with

the

overall aim

of

helping

you

to understand

this

new

t

ype

of

engine.

As

such

it

is really

aimed

at

the

beginner

to

jets,

but

don

't

give

up

if

you are

already

famil

iar

with that

special

kerosene

fragrance

;

you

will still

find

a

few

useful

ideas

here even

if

you already have

some

experience

of

jet

engines

.

At

this point

I

would

like

to

offer

my

gr.ttdul thanks

to

my like-minded friends

and

colleagues

for their

help

and

encouragement.

My

special

thanks

must

go

to

Kurt

Schreckling

,

Bennie

van

de

Goor

and

Han Jenniskens

for

their

helpful

and

useful

comments.

I

would

also

like

to thank

Karl-Hdnz

Collin

and

Arno

Foerster

,

who were

very

helpful

in

imparting

their

specialist

knowledge and

information.

oreword

to

the

second

edition

In

recent

years

model jets have

become more

and

more common at

our

flying fields.

Many

engines are

avail

able

today

.

The

new power

source

has

been

proven

strong and

reliable

.

World

Championships have

been

held

and

the

winning

models

were

powered

by

jet

engines.

t

seems

that the

ducted

fan

will

he replaced

soon

.

The growing

interest

in

this

small

turbo

engine

is

also

reflected

in

the

activities

of

the

GTBA,

the

Gas Turbine

Builders Association

.

which

has

approximately

1 700

members

enrolled

to

date

and

which

facilitates

the exchange

of

ideas

and

practicalities

.

The

thmst

figures have increased

significantly

.

High

tech

materials

are used

in

the

area

of

the

turbine

wheels

and

bearings

. By

far

.

no oth

er

engine

can give

so

much night

power

to

a

model

plane

as

a

small

gas

turbine

.

C:ommercial

engines

offer

thrusts

of

lOON

or

more

.

Electronic

starters and

control

units

become

more and

more standard

.

Therefore

I

have paid

special

attemion

to the

constantly

increasing

number

of

production

nlrbines

now on

the

market

and

have revised

and

updated

the

description

of

these

power

plants

.

In my

eyes

,

the

rapid

development has only

been

possible

becaus

e

of

an

open

information

exchange

by

ama

tc:urs

and

home

builders.

Many

commercial

engines

include

the

knowledge

of

milny

amateurs

and their

con

stnlction

is

in

many ways

very alike

tu

the

Microturbine.

KJ-66

or

its

predecessors.

In

this

second edition

[

have also

improv

ed

the

building instructions

ro

achieve

an

e

asier

constnlction

with

a

solid

performance

.

At

this

point

I

wish

to

thank

very

sincerely

all

those

who

have

helped

me

with

tips

and

ideas

.

and

c:specially

Jeslis Artes

de

Arcos

,

Otto Bmhn

, Alfred

Kittelberger

, Ridi

Reichstetter

,

Tom

Wilkinson

and

John

G.

Wright.

ThOJnas Kamps

April

2002


ontents

Pa

ge

Introduction

.......

.

...

..

.........

,.

..

, .

..

.

. .•.

.•

,

••

, ,

••

, ,

•.

.

...

...

.....

...

.•

,

...

.

..

...

_

1/

Chapter

1

How

do

jet

engines

work?

.........

.

,.

, , , ... , . . . . . . . . . . . .

.............

, , , .11

17.1e

open

ga

s /urfJille process

.,

.............

,.

,.,.,.

...............

•

..

/1

'fl.1e

qllestiun

u/e/ficie

/1(

y

. . . . . . . . , . , , , .. , .

..

..

..

.....

" ,

..

,

.......

.

..

3

The lk e1opment

hi

sto

ry

of

th

e

jet

engine

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

It

all

started

ill

The

193

0s

..

......

....

, , , , , , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ..

.15

TIn'

ro/Justjet ell

p,i

l1eS

( f the

1950

s

. , , , , ,

........

. , . , , , , , , , , ,

..

.......

..

..

...

,

...

]()

Prototyp

es

for model jet

engine

s

....

.

..

.. . . . . . . . . . ,

...

. , , , . , , , , , ,

..

....

. I )

Drolle eng

in

es

lml

AP[ls (AlIxiliaJ:I'

PUll

'

er

Un

it

s)

..

.

.....

, . , , . , , ,

..

, , . . . . , . , ,

.18

Hlper

-cbargillg

...

..

. . ,

.......

..

......

. , • .

.19

Blrly

model jet

engines

...........

..

...

..

...

, ,.

....

.

..

. .

...

,'

, ','

.

...

..

.

22

,Ua.\'

Ureber

~

Ba

hr

Mamba

.

.....

..

..

........

,. .

.

,. .

.

22

fl.1

e Sll'e

di

sh

PAL

.~I st

e

a

nd

lts slIccessor TlIr Jumin

..

,

"

......

...

22

KlIrt

c

br

eck

lin

/ ,

~

rD

series

...

.. .

......

, , , , , , , ' . . . . . .

.23

Turborec T240ji·ull1]PX.

.

......

....

......

, '.

. . , , , , , , ,

,.

.

....

.

26

Mo

del

jet

engines

to

date

....

.

...

.... , , . , ,

..

,

....

..

....

....

..

, ,

...

..

.....

..

...

, , ,

..

, ,

.2H

1.1.

Tbe}

-4

50

I

~

)'

Sopbia Precisiull

. . . . .

..

..,, ,',.

..

.

.........

. . , ,

..

.

29

1

2

AM

T

-

Adlwlced

.

Hi

Cl'U

Turbin

es.

, . , , , . , , ,

..

, . , . . .

......

.....

.

30

1.3

.

'fl.n

'

r;T

66

..

..

.

...

. , , , , , ,

.............

..

, , , ,

..

,

......

..

..

..

, , , , , , . .31

1

.4

. The .

411

es

-T

lI

rbines

..

..

...

..

.

..

,.

..,

..

......

...

32

1 5

'fl.?e}et CtlllI1()del tlll'

hille

',,.....

.

...

..

.....

,

,,'

.....

...

....

.

, ,

) )

1.6.

'fl.1e

Small

est Ellgilles

.

......

...

..

...

, , , , , , , , , , ,

..

........

. , , , , , , , , , , .

...

_

34

..

,

36

..

Turboprup

and

Sb{ /i POll'er En

gi

nes.

. .

...

........

. , . , , , , ,

....

.....

.

The

Component

Parts

of

a

Model

Jet

Engine

. . .

......

..

... , . , .

S

pecial features

of

small

gas

turhines

. , , ' . . . . . . . . . .

..

.

CumlmstiOll

. .

...

...

, .

>7

.....

---

....

.

-)

(

,

.

..

37

.

...

3

7

Rotor design

, . . . . . , . , . , , . ' . . .

..

, , . .

,

38

Gap

l

o~~~es

. .. ..

.,

....

.

...

..

. , , , , , , , , , . . . . . . . . . . . , , ,

..

.

...

.

38

CO

llclusio

ns

relatillg to t

be

model

jet

ellRille

.......

....

..

,

, ,...

.

....

..

.

...

..

.39

Th

e

compressor

. . . . . . . . . . , , ,

..

...

..

. , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.4

1

Th

e ra

dial

co

mpr

essur

.

...

..

. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

.42

Typical calculaticJ1l/or a

radial

compressor .

..

...

.

..

, , . , . .

...

.

..

..

...

, . . .

.·14

TlIr/)ocbarger co

mpre

ssurs

.. ,

......

.. , , , , , , , , , , .

...

..

.........

, , ,

.......

...

15

Th

e

co

mpr

essur

cbarllc

t

er

islic

[ ,rapb

. .

.,..

. .

..

.. , ..

,..

. . . . . . . . . . . .

47

D(ffuser

I b

ee

l~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

....

. , , , , , ,

..

,

..

.48

EWllllple

u/

ca

lculatillg tbe d(llil

ser

s),stem

. . . . . , . , ,

...

, .

........

, , ,

.

51

fl.1

e s

urg

e limit

..

.. . . . . , , , , , .

........

, . , . . . .

)2

The

axi

al

compressor

.....

' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

...

)4

EX'a

mpl

e

cal

c

ulati

u

lI

:

llxi

al

cOli/pressor s

tage

.

.................

, . . . . . . . , ,

....

.

55

The combustion

chamher

.,

.

..

. ,

....

,.....

....

.

...

. . . . . . . . . .. , , . , . , , '

..

' ,

...

57

Desigll

andfilllction

~f

t

he

c

OIIIIJII

stic

)//

chmll/]er.

,

......

.. , , , , , , , , , , .. ,

...

...

.....

. )

The

questiun

o

lel

..

,..

....

_ . . . .

....

, , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

.

.

58

Jli

x

tur

efo/'llwtion

....

....

.

..

...

. .

..

...

..

...

..

, , ,

......

..

..

..

....

.

60

'fl.H

sig

nifican

ce

c lre-circlIfation ZO/les

. ,

......

..

.....

, , ,

...

...

..

..

, . , , , . , , . , , .

..

62

Turbine stage

and exhaust

cone

. . . . . . .

..

..

.. ,

..

, , , , , , , .

..

.

......

.

63

HOI

I

tb

e turbl/

Ie

stliRe

lI

'o

rks

....

,

...

_

............

....

, , . , . . . . .

..

....

,

.63

Axi

al

turhin

e

or

radial

tur

b

in

e?

.

...

_

......

, . , , , ,

..

, . .

.....

.

..

.

6 )

Design

and

l'ec

tor diagrams

qfa/l

axial tur

Ji

l/e

......

.

...

. ,

..

, ,

..

, ..

...

_ . . . . . .

..

.

65


1)pica/

calculatioll: IlIriJine

design/or

a

model

jet

ellgille

. . .

...

................

..

66

CelltriJi'l ,alload~

011

the rot

or

lIheel

.

..

, . . .. . .

..

,

..

,........

.....

..

68

T

be

exha1lst

cO

l1e

.

......

, . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

..

.....

,

...

.

..

.

69

17.1e

sbc{/i

o/a

modeljetenJl,i

ne

....

..

. , , ,

............

.

.................

..

69

Calculating

the

critical rotatiollal

speed

.

.....

. , . . . • . . .

..

.

....

.

7U

Chapter

2 A

Home-made

ModelJet

Engine

.

.......

. .

,.,

....

..

71

Introduction

. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

Ir'hat tools

u'ill

T

need."

...

.

_

.....

, , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . ,

....

..

/.

Selecting materials

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

7

Tbe compressor

wh

ee

l

. , . , . , , , . , . . . .

.....

, ,

...

, , . , . . . . . . . . . .

.....

...

74

Constructing

the

engine

. ,

........

...

.

...

.

............

, , ..

....

, • '

..•

.

...

, ,

..

...

..

75

Maki

ng

the

shaft

.

. , . .

..

. , . , , . . .

....

, . . . ..

..

.....

.

............

..

75

17.1e

sbaji

tlll1l1

el

and

he

arill[ ,

...........

...

, . . . . . . . , , , ,

......

,

...

, ,

...

, , ..

76

17.n

'

turhine

noz

zle

f .u

icl

e

l'

CII/{

sy~

tem

....

..

.............

..

,

..

,

...........

....

...

78

17.

1e (u rbi

ll

l{'heel

. , , , , . , . . . , , . . . . .

.'..,.. .,' .....

..

. .

..

78

BlIlllllcillg

.

..

........

...

......

...

.

...............

.........

, , . . . . .

9

The

compre~~~

system

...

,.

.

...........

, . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

.

79

17.](.'

co

mbustioll

chaJllher

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

................

. ,

.. ..

..

,

..

.

.

80

17.

1e

bousing

...

.

.. ,.

. , . ,

..

, .

....

.

.........

..........

.

.

..........

. .

82

Assembling

the component

s

..

...

..

..

......

..

.

,

,., ,.,

.

85

Running

the

engine

for

the

first

time

. . . . . . . . . . . .

.

8

5

Bench

running stand

for

kerosene operation

..

.

.......

, , . , , , . , , , . '

.....

, ,

..

, , , . ,

..

87

Pumps

,

tallk

s

alld

otber

equipmellt

.

............

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

.

..

88

Running

the

en

g

ine

on

kerosene

..

.

...

,

..

,

...............

..

.

..

.....

........

..

89

Gener.tl

instructions for different

compressors

,

...

............... ,............

...

..

..

9

Optimising

the

performance

of

model jet engines

..

.......

. . , ,

..

...

.

.......

..

......

.

92

Chapter

3

The Engine

in

Practice

. . .

..

.

...

.

...

.

..

...

..................

.

........

..........

.

9<

Safety:

the

First

Commandment

...

.

.....

....

, ,

..

, ,

..

'.

....

. . ,

....•....

, . . .

9

4

Measuring

the

engine

's

performance data

.....

.....

..

.............

....

....

.............

..

95

Rutatiollal speed. pressure

and

thrust

.

..

...

, . ,

...........

, , .

.....

..

, ,

..........

..

95

Measurements/or

tbe adl'cJlZced operator .

..

.

.............

.....

...

.

........

......

.

95

Using jet

engines

in

model

aircraft

..

.

."

........

,

..

,

.....

...

...

,

...

.................

.

97

FlIlldamellfal special/eallires

..

.

, ......

..

•

.•.

, , . , , . . . . . . . . .

•.

. ,

.

97

H

owie

t

engines

he

hat

'e

in

flight

.

, . . . .

..........

.....

..

..

.

...............

...

97

Air

ill

take

d

esif. ,11

,

....

.......

.•...

..

'

...

,. ....

..,.

.. ..

,

...

.,. ,

98

C

o

olillg

tb

e

/lIs

ela

ge

. . . . . . . . . . .

..

......

..

.

......

..........

..

......

...

..

.

..

99

Auxiliary

Equipment

..

..

.......

..............

.

......

..

.•

.....

.

.....

.

....

,

..

...

....

..

101

Particular

problems

encountered

in

jet-powered

flight ..

..

......

....

...

.

..

. .. , ' , ..

..

.

1 2

Thrust

delay

..

, . . , ,

..

,.

. .

...

, ,

...

..........

.

..

..

....

.

...

, ..

...

.

1 2

Gyroscopic effects.

,

..

, , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

.,

..............

,

...

,

..

,

...

.

IUj

Fault-finding. . .

..

..,

..

...

..

........

,'.'

, ....

...................

..

.

1 4

\f hat

tbe

sOllnd

lt e

engi

lle tells

you

.

.

....

,

....

, , , . . . . . . . . . .

...

. .

.

1 4

Exceeding

the

pr

es

sure

limit

(surgillg)

...

.

...

..

, . .

......

............

, . ,

...

..

.

1 5

A

standard

problem

..

....

...

...

,

.........

,. .

...

,

..

, , , . , . ,

..

, . , . , . ,

..........

..

.

1 5

Excessi

L'

e(l'

high

exba

us

gas

temperatllre

.....

...

, , . ' , , . , , .• '

.....•.

,

..

,

..

,

...

..

.

1 5

Maintenance

and repair

...

,

.,

, .

..

..

......

, , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

1 6

CheckillJl,

tbe bearing

s

.....

..

.......

, , • , , , . , , , . , , ,

..

, , . , . ,

...

, ,

1 6

CleaJliJll ,theengille

.

...

......

,.

.

...

,

....

, .

.

1 6

Bibliography .. ,

....

,

...

. ,. ,.

.

..

,

.......

, , ,

.......................

...

J

7

Notes

..

. . . .

.............

.

..

....

.........

. ,

...

...

.

..

...

..

.

.......

, ' ,

..

...

.

1 8


ntroduction

How do

jet

engines

work?

Gas

turbine

i

have long

since claimed

a

secure

place

for themselves

in

our

world.

Amongst

the

most

ohvious

examples

are

the

innumerahle

aircraft

which

day

after

day

fly

above us

,

trailing

their

wakes

of

condensation

across

the

sl 1 ,

hut

that s

not

all:

gas

turbines

are at

work

where

you might

not

know

it:

nowadays they

are

used more and more commonly in

power

stations

,

electricity generators

,

hoat engines and

much

more.

Suddenly

these engines

are

increasingly

heing used

to

propel

models

,

and that

is

why

we

need

to understand

how

they

work

.

Unfortunately

it is

much more

difficult

to explain

how

a

gas

turbine works than to

elucidate

what

is

probably the

most important

energy

machine

of our

time

:

the

piston engine

.

There

the

immense pressure caused

by

explosive

combustion moves

a

piston running

inside

a cylinder.

The

principle

is

clear and compn:hensihle

. Alas,

it

is just impossible

to

explain

in

so few

wonh

how

a

gas tur·

bine

works

.

Here

we

find

spinning rotors and wheels

,

gas

flow

and energy conversion

,

hut don

t

let

that worry

you

-

once we

have

made

a little

headway

in

explaining

the

basic principles

,

the

jet

engine

will

soon

give

up

its mys

terious

secrets

.

The

open

gas

turbine

process

Regardless

of whether we

are considering

a

shaft power

turbine

(designed

to produce

mechanical

power)

or

a

jet

engine

.

we

find

the

same working process

at the

core

:

it

is

termed

the open

gas

turhine process

. Air is

sucked

into

the

engine and compressed

.

The compressed

air

then

tlows

through

a

comhustion

chamber

n

which

it is

heated

to

a

high

temperature

.

[n

their hot state the

gases are

capable

of

performing more work than was

put

into

them

during

the

compres-

sion

stage

. Finally

the

air

expands

again

as it released

into

a

turbine

,

to

which

it

imparts

a

proportion

of

its

power

.

This

process

sets

the

turhine spinning

,

which

in

rurn

drives

the compressor to which

it is

connected

by

a shaft.

The

residual

energy

in

the exhaust

gas

can

now be exploited to

serve

the purpose

of

the engine

.

If

the

exhaust

stream

of

the

hasic

gas

turhine

is

further acceler



ated

by

an

exhaust cone the

machine

hecomes

a

jet

engine

.

The

resultant

tlow

of

hot

gas

produces

a

forwards·

Compressor

CombustiOfI clJamber

Turbine

o

o

0

o

0

o

0

o

0

o

d

e

g

Diagram

o

a

jet

engirle.

a) Air

intake,

b) Compressor

blades,

c)

Ring

o

diffuser

blades,

d)

Compressor

rotor,

e)

Front

bearing,f)

Fuel

injector

IOZZle,

g)

Combustion

cbll1llber,

b)

Shaft,

i

Nozzle

gUide

l alles,

j

Turbille

rotor

blades

,

k)

Turbine

rotor.

I

Tail

cone.

ModelJet Engines

11


a

b

c

Types

o

urbille

compressor.

a)

Axial

compressor.

b)

Radial

compressor.

c)

Diagonal cumpressur.

directed

force, i.e.

there

is

an equal

and opposite

reaction

according

to

the

familiar

laws

of

physiCS.

The

gas

turbine

is c1asscd

as

a

heat engine

as

is

the

pis

ton engine

familiar

to model

flyers,

so

it will

be

no

sur

prise

0

find

that

borh engines

s

har

e

certain

hasic

features

.

The working medium

is

tirst

compressed

and

then heated

in

a

comhustion chamber

.

In

the

piston

engine rhe

hearing

occurs

by

the cumbustion

of

a fuel -

air

mixtur

e,

the

combustion occurring

in

an explosive

form.

The

r

esult

is

a

tremendous

rise in

pressure

inside

the

cylinder.

]n

contrast

,

the

analogous

process

inside

the

gas

turbine

is isobaric

in

nature

,

i.e

.

the pressure

remains constant

when

the working gases

now

through the

com-bustion

chamber

.

Thus

in

the

case

of

the

gas

turbine

the

increase

in usable

power

is

nOI

due

to

a rise

in

pressure

in

the

combustion

chamber

.

Quite

the opposite

: in

prac



tice

we

h

ave

to accept

a loss

of

pressure

of

a

few

per

Si1lgle

stage

axial

lurbi le.

a)

Nuzzle

guide

l alles,

b)

Rotating blade

12

cent

in

order

to

achieve stable

combustion

.

The

sole

pur



pose

of

the combustion

chamber

in

a

gas

turbine

is

to

heat

air. As a

result

the

g ~

turbine

~

not

bound

strictly

to

a

specific

fuel. In

principle

the

engine could be

madt

to work

i

an electric heating

element

were

used instead

of

burning kerosene

.

The

crucial

difference

between the

gas

turbine

and

the

pi

s

ton engine

is in

the

sel[uence

of

the

processes

within the engine

.

The piston engine completes

the

stages

of

its

power

cycle

in sequence,

one

by

one

,

whereas

the

gas turbine dot s everything at

the same time

. Air is

constant

ly

sucked

in

and

comprt sst d, ht ated and

expanded

again.

II

is

this

very

con~t ncy

which

constitutes

the

great

advantage

of

the

gas

turbine

.

Th

e

individual

processes

run continuously

and

in

separate spaces

or

areas

of

the

engine

. Every

g IS

turbine

possesses

a

compressor and

a

tur



bine

.

These components

are

designc::d in

the

form

of

a

continuous

flow

machine

.

In

comparison

with piston

engines they offer

the important

advantage that

they

are

able

to

produc

e

great

power

in

the

smallest

possible

space

.

For

example

, a

model

engine

s

single

turbine

wheel

,

just

6<;

mm

in

diameter

,

can

drive

a

compressor

with

a

power

absorption

of

more than

20 kW

at

full

throttle

.

[n

full

-

size

jet

engines the

power

levels

are astronomic

-

to

the point

where

they are

difficult

to comprehend

.

The compressor

of

a

gas

turhine

is

always

some fonn

of

turbine machine

; usually

either an

axi 1I

or

a radial

com-

pressor

. [n

the

case

of

the

axial

type the

gas

flows parallel

to

the

drive

s

haft

.

while

the

radial

type

hurls

the

gas

out

wardo;

perpendicular

to

the

shaft

. A

third type

-tht: diagonal

compressor

-is

used

rarely

,

hut

it

is

st

ill

worthy

of

mention.

As

is

easy

to see

,

this

represent

s a

hybrid

of

the two

other

types

.

The

air

arrives

in

the

axial

direction

and

is

pushed

on

in a

broadly

axial

direction

.

the diameter

of the

now increasing

steadily

.

The

axial

compressor

is

broadly

similar

t

the

fan

of

an impeller

(ducted

fan)

. A

compressor

may

consist of

st: veral stages

,

t:ach

stage

consisting

of

1

rotating

compressor

wheel and

a

fixed

diffuser

whc::el. also

known

as

the

sta

tor

.

The rotor and stator

are always

fitted

with

a

partinl



lar

numher

of

vanes

or

blades

.

The

air

is

initially

accelerated

as it flows

through

the

stages

,

then

slowed

.Hllde/.fel

Engines


down

again slightly. As a re

sult

of

this

process

a

propor

tion

of

the

air·s

kinetic

energy

is

converted into pressure energy

in

eac

h

stage.

Multi-stage

axial

comprt

:

ssors

art

:

standard for

full-size

gas

turbines

.

Modern

jet

engines

have

extrem

e

ly

complex

compressors

consisting

of up

to

17 stages

and

even more

.

The

result is

an

increase

in

pres-sure

of up

to

30

times

.

The

radial

compressor

is

much

simpler

in

construc



tion

and

therefore

much

more suitable

for

model

engines.

The

a

ir

flows

into the wheel

in

the

axial

direc



tion

and

is

th

en

tlung

outward

by

centrifugal

force

.

On

its

own

thi

s

device

is

known

as

a

centrifugal

compressor

.

Once

again a Single

stage consists

of

a

rotor and

a

stator

,

although

the pressure increase

per

stage

is

much higher

than

with

an

axial

compressor

stage

. As a result

gas

tur



bines

with

radial

compressors

can often

manage

with

only

one

stage

. Additional

advantages

of

the

radi<t

compressor

are

its

robust nature

and

its

inherent

reliability

.

The

disadvan

tage is

the

l

arge

frontal

area

of

the

machine

. Gas

turbines with

a radial

compressor are therefore

always

somewhat

bull T

The second

continuous

flow

machine

in

the

gas

tur



bine

is

the

actual

tumine

.

This

can

e

visualised

as

a

com



pressor

in

reverse

.

The

turbine converts pressure

energy

into

the

shaft

power

which

is

required

to

drive the compres

so

r. Since

the hot

gases

contain

much more

energy

than

the compressor

absorbs

,

the

system

is

self



sustaining

. If

the

final

temperature

after

the

combustion

chamber

-

what

is

known

as

the

combustion

gas

temper



ature

-is

high

enough

,

additional

power

can

he

extracted

from it. Like

the

compressor

,

the

turbine

itself may consist

of

one

or

more

stages.

When the air reaches

the

turbine

stage

it first

tlows

through th

e

stator

which

converts

part

of

the pres

s

ure energy

into

kinetic

energy

.

As

the

gases

Like

the

compn

:ss

or

,

the

power

turbine

GIn

be con



Mmcted

in axial

or

radial

form

.

The

first

successful

gas

turbine

designed

by

Pabst

von Ohain

(193

7)

w ~

fittt::d

with

a radial

tumine

. In

the course

of

time

the

radial

tur



bine has

been superseded

almost

entirely by

the

axial

ty

pe

.

Even by

the

50s

the

radial

turbine only

survived

occasionally

in low

-

power

shaft

power

engin

es

.

However

,

for

model

jet

engines

this

type

of

turbine could

still

bt::

of

interest

.

The

question

of

efficiency

We

will

no

w

consider the

processes

inside

the

gas

tur



bine

somewhat

more

closely

.

If

we

adopt

the

proct::ss

described

here

,

the engine

can

only

function

if

the

tur



bine

produu

:s s

ufficient

power

to

drive

the

compressor.

U

nfortunately

turbines and compressors are

not

zero

l

oss machines

.

In

each

stage friction

and

turbulence

absorb

pan

of

the energy and

waste

it

as

heat

.

To

mini

mise friction losses

there

must be

a

gap

between the

rotor

blades

and

the

housing to

avoid

any

d

ange

r

of

foul

ing

.

This

clearance

then

allows

a

proportion

of

the

gas simply

to

slip

past

the rotor

.

To

counter

this

problem and

still

keep the engine

mn



ning it

is

essential

to

keep the temperature

of

the

gas

-

and therefore

its

power

capacity

-

high

enough

to

com



pen~att

for

the

losses

.

Howeve

r.

the

permissible

gas tem-

perature

is

not

infinitely

high

.

The

maximum

temperature

is

limited

by

the strength

of

the

materials

used

in

the

engine

,

especially

where the

modeller

do

es not

have

access

to

heat

-resis

tant

steels

.

The

only way

out

of

thi

s

dilemma

is

to

strive for

maximum possible

effic

iency

of

the compressor and

turbine

.

This

is

one of

the

most

diffi

cult problems

for

the

modell

er

to

tackle

,

since

the

laws

of

physics have

been drawn

up

to thwart

the

experi-

menter

.

The

s

maller

we

make

the compressor

and

tur-

bine

,

the

less effiCient,

in general

terms

.

they

become

.

pass

through the

fixed

stator

they

are accelerat



ed

in

the

direction

of

rotation

of

the

rotor

.

The

gas

is

accelerated once more within

the

vanes

of

th

e

rotor

,

but

thb.

time

in

the opposite

direction

.

The

net

result

is a

powerful peripheral

force acting

on

all

the

rotor

blad

es

,

and

taking the

form

of

a

propulsive

torque

.

This

peripheral

force arises from

the

recoil

which

the rotor

blades

experience

. As

the

exhaust

gases

flow

through

at

high

speed

they are

accelerated in

the

direction

opposite to that

of

rotation

.

On

the

other

hand

the

twisting motion produced

by

the nozzle guide

vane

sys-

tem

produces

an

im



pulse

force

in

the rotor

blades

,

varying

accord-

ing

to

the

design

of

the

turbine

stage.

Alread)

recognisClbl), a

model

jet

engine,

this

desigll

pro€luced

5

Nell to1ls

of

thrust at

I

maximum

speed

of

35,000 rpm. Tbe

fuel

pure

diesel

was

vaporised

ill a

copper

tube

and

burlled

ill a

rel erse

flow

combustioll

chamber.

ModelJet Engines

13


Simply

reducing the

size

of

a

gas

turhine

and

huilding

it

to model scale does not

help

,

as

it

is

impossihle to

reduce

the

size

of

the

gas

molecules

in

the

air

at

the

same

timt::.

t

is

the

air

molecules which

are

responsihle

for

the

inferior aerodynamic characteristics

of

small

jet

engine hlades

compared

with

large

ones

.

t

is

the

same

prohlem

that

we

encounter with

very

small

model

aircraft

wings

-

which

is

what

the

hlades

really are.

This

was

tht::

reason why

wt

modellers

were

so

pleased

when

it

proved

possible

to

make

a

model

jet

engine

nm

at

all.

The

first

engine

which

I

constmcted

refused

to

nm

until

the

air

diffuser system

in

the compressor

region

had

heen reworked

,

and even

then the

engine

s

running

qualities

were

very unsatisfactory

.

In

subsequent

experiments

I

used

tht::

housing

of

a

commercial

turhocharger

in

an effort

to

improve

compressor

efficiency.

The

experimemal

engine based

on

this

component

worked

at

the

first

attempt.

The compressor and

diffuser

system

were taken

from

an exhaust

gas

turbocharger designed

for

a lorry

engine

,

and

the

air

supplied hy

the

compres

sor

was

ducted

to

the

gas-heated

comhustion cham

her

hy

means

of

spiral tuhing.

The turbine

was

a

home



made

axial

device

with

a

rotor

formed

from

thin

sheet

Experimelltal

eugi1le:jirst

ruu

October

1990

maximum

speed:

19 000

rpm

pressure

ratio:

1.04

fuel:

propane

gas.

metal.

Initially

the

engine

s

efficiency was so

poor

that

the

system

could

only

just

keep itself

running.

At

the

same time

the

tempera

ture of the

gas

was

so

high

that the turbine

rotor

glowed bright

orange

.

Residual

energy

for

thrust

was

virtually non-existent

.

When the

throttle was

opened the

spiral

hose

inflated

itself

horrihly

,

and

the

com



pressed

air

whistled

out

from

many

a leak.

14

Since

then

I

and

others) have produced

a

series

of

usahle

model

jet

engines.

The

efficien

cy

of

the

stages has

heen

improved to

the

point

where the

gas

tempera



ture

can

he

held

down

to

a

sensihle

level.

However

,

the

relatively

poor

rotor

efficiency

still

manifests itself

in

the

engines

high

fuel

con



sumption: specific

con



sumption

is

ahout

2-3

times that

of

comparahle

full

-

size

engines and

ahout

8

times

the con



sumption

of

modern by

-

pass engines.

he

development

history

qf

he

j t

engine

Since

they

were

in

vented

jet engines have

been the

subject

of

con



tinuous

development

,

and have

t::volved

and

changed to

an

enormous

extem

.

The

dual require

ments

of

higher perfor



mance

and

hetter

fuel

consumption

havt::

re



sulted

in

an

endless

stream

of

new

designs.

,/,fodelJet

llgines


Clt:ar

trenlb

can

now

be

perceived:

higher and higher

combustion

gas

temperanlres (above

1500

0

C)

and

pressure

ratios mostly in

the

mnge 10

l

30

.

This

is

the

only

way

in

which maximum

power

can

be

combined with

efficient

exploitation

of

fuel.

Turbine blades

capablt:

of

surviving

under

such

conditions an:

extremely

sophisticated

high-tech

products. The

simplt:

form

of

the

turbo

jet -

what

we

might

call

the pure

jet

engine

-

has

heen

almost

entirely sidelined.

In

its

place

we

find

extremely

complex

engines

,

most

of

them

multi-shaft

by-pass

and

turbo-f

an

designs.

There mu

st

be

many modellers

who

would

like

to

design

their

own

model jet engines,

but

they

will find

no help

at

all

in

this type

of

prototype

.

On the

·:

ontrary

:

modern

jet

engines with

all

their

sophistica

tion

do

an

effective

job

of

scaring

modellt:rs

off

.

f

you are one

of

thuse wunder-moddlers

who

is

capable

of

proouc

ing a

miniature

version

of

such

an engine

at

model

scale you

will

undoubtedly

be

feted

as

a

master

mechanical engineer

,

but

it is

extremely

unlikely

that you

will

be

able

to

persuade

your engine to

run.

The

jet-minded

muddlt:r

really

has no

alternative

but

to concentrate

on

the

essentials

of

the

matter:

the open

gas

turbine

process.

The

first

question

we

have

to

tackle

is

this

:

can

a

jet

engine

function

at

all

if

we

do

not

achieve

a

particular minimum

pressure

ratio

or

a partiClI

lar

gas

temperature?

Fortunatc:1y

the

answer

is

yes

;

theory

promises

that

a

gas

turbine

will

function

even

if

the

gas

temperature

is

kept

down

to

a

value

which we

can

comfortably

handlt:.

Prospects are

also

good

when

we consider pressure

ratios

;

in fact

,

any

minuscult:

excess pressure

is

theoretically sufficient

to

keep

a

gas

turbine

running

.

Supporting

evidence for

this

theory

is

found

in early

gas

turbines.

The

first

examplt:s

were

ex

tremely simple

in

deSign

,

but

they did work.

The thermodynamic

data

,

pressure

ratio

and combustion

gas

temperature

of

these

engines are within

regions which

we

can certainly

achieve

Witll

model

jet

engines

.

In

shon

,

if

we

are

look

ing for

full

-

size

jet engines

which

might

encourage

us

in

our

quest

for

successful

model

gas

turbines

,

we

should

go

right

back

to

the

original develop

ments

.

t

all

st rted

in

the

1930s

back

as 1935

.

From

today

s

point

of

view this machine had

more

in

common

with

a

washing machine

drum

than

a

jet

engine

,

and

indeed

it

could

not

run

independently

. Ernst

Heinkel

,

who

recugnised

thl: S

ignificance

of

Ohain

s

wurk

, allowc::d

him

to

continue

his

experiments

in

the

Heinkel works. Abuut

a

year

later

,

in March 1937

.

vun

Ohain

s S2

engine

ran

autonomously

for

the

first

time

.

Only

one

month later

Frank

Whittle

s

engine was

also

running

.

Two

years

later

the

S2 s

successor

-thl:

HI:

S3 B -

had

been

developed to

the

point

where

it

was

capable

of

prop

elling

an

aircraft

.

Von

Ohain s

enginl: is

notable

for

its

simplicity

am.l

functional

nature

.

He used

a radial

compressor

and

a radial

turbine

,

both

with an

initial

diam

eter

of

600

mm

. An

axial

compressor

stage was

fitted in

front

of

the

radial

compressor

in

an

effort

to

increas

e

the

pressure

ratio

.

The

rotor

, i.e. all

the wheels

and

the

shaft

,

was

mounted

on

ballraces

;

one

each

between the

axial

and

radial

com



pr

e

ssor

stages

and

onl:

behind the

turbine

.

The

maximum

rotatiunal

spc::ed

of

the

S2

engine

was 10

,

000 rpm

at

which point

it

produced

a

cunstant

thrust

of

1,270

Newton

s.

The exact

thermo-dynamic data for

this

I: xperi

mental

engine

are

not

available

,

hut

calculations

show

that

the compressor

could

only

have

produced

an

excess

pressure

of

around

0.8

to

I

bar

.

t

proved

necessary

to

carry

out

a

tremenduus

amount

of

experimental work

in

order

to

optimise

the

combustion chamber.

Initially

von Ohain

used

a shon-<:ut,

in

so

far

as

gaseous hydrogen was used

as

the

fuel.

This gas forms

a

combustible mixture

when

mixed

with

air

in

almust any

proportion.

Later a

number

of

tuhes were

fitted,

running

through

thl:

cumhustion chamher. Petrul was

pumped

into the

engine and vaporised in

these

tubes

,

so

that

it

was in

a

more

or

less

gaseous stage

when

it

reached the

combustion

chamber

. Similar

problems

afflict

today

s

model

jet

engines

,

and the

burning

of

liquid

fuel still

presents

us with serious dif

ficulties.

The history

of

jet engines

begins

in

the

late

1930s

.

The German physicist Hans-Joachim

Pabst

von Ohain and the

Englishman Frank Whittle

developed

the

first

engines indepen

dently

of

each

other

and

almost

exactly

at

the

same

time

.

Von

Ohain

had

heen

experimenting with the new

propulsive

technology

since

1933.

His

fir

st

experimental

engine

,

termed

the

SI

,

was

completed

as

far

On

27th August

1939

the

first

jet-powered light took place

when

the He

178J1ew

powered

by

the

He

S3

jet

ellgille.

Thrust:

4.9kN

at

13

000 rpm,

throughput:

12

kg/so

diameter:

1.2m,

mass:

360

kg.

ljrom:

Leist,

Ellcyclopedia

of

et

engilles

[German] .

i\lo

e

J

el

Ellgille

s

15


Model

jet engines

which

are

capable

of

running

on

diesel

or

kerosene

usually

exploit

the technique

of

pre

vaporisation.

This

technique

was tried at

the

time

,

but

in spite

of

its simplicity it

was

not

successful.

Totla),

it

has become

a useful

technique

for model jet engines

once

again.

The

robust

jet engines

ofthe

1950s

In

the course

of

time mun:

:

anti

more

companks

turned

to

the develupment

of

this type

of

engine

.

Amongst

the

best-known

manufacturers

at

that time

were

Allison,

General

Electrics,

Pratt

Whitney

, Bristol,

de

Havilland

, Rolls-

Royce

and Turbomeca

,

and these

companies producetl

numerou

s

variants

on the

gas

tur

bine theme.

Initially

many

engin

es

were

based

on

Frank

Whittle

's

general

design

.

The

primary

feature

of

these

engines

is

their twin

-

flute

radial

cumpressor

and

single

s

tage

axial

turbine

.

The compressor

whe

features

vanes

on the

front

and rear

faces

.

which

means that

double

the

quantity

of

air

can

be

moved

. A

gigantic

dif·

fuser system

is usually

connected

to

the rotor

,

ending

in

convoluted ducts running to

the

individual

combustion chambers

. An axial

turhine

is

used

.

This

type

of

engine

is

very

clumsy

and

hulky

,

anti its

great

frontal

arc;, makes

it a

poor contender

for use

in

high-speed

jet air· craft.

Nevertheless

the

Whittle design was very

popular

hecause

of

its

simplicity

and

reliability.

In many

countries

t

was

the

starting

point

for

further

tlevelopments

,

and

numerous

variants

were

protlucetl

.

These

jet

engines

were

used

to

propel

many famous aircraft

types

.

Thanks

to

the

engine types

'

widespread application

we

fintl

examples

in

most museums and exhibitions

of

aircraft technology

.

The

technology

is

of

particular interest

to

us

because

we

can

clearly

see in

it

the

elementary principles

of

the

jet engine

.

The

basic layout

, i.e. radial

compressor combined

with

axial

turbine

, is

often

usetl

nowadays in model

jet

engines

.

Another

very

s

uccessful

family

of

engines was

devel

oped

by

the

French

firm

Turbomeca

.

The company

was

foundetl in

9~8

with

the

aim

of

manufacturing

air com

pressurs for supercharging piston engines

.

The

develop

ment

of

small

gas turbines began

in

1941

,

and

the

first

approved jet

engine

of

the

series was known

as

the

Pimene

,

which

protlucetl

1,080

Newtons

of

thrust.

The

Palas anti

Marbon::

types

followed

in

19S

I

and

19 ;2

respectively.

At

the

same time

shaft

power

engines

were

derived from

the

basic

design by

adding

a

further turbine

stage

.

Probably

the

best known representative

is

the

Artouste

which

was used

in

numerous

helicopters

,

including

the

Alouette

. All

these engine types

were

based

on

a

radial

compressor

and

an

axial

turbine

.

The

tlesign

uf

the

compres

sor

gives

important

clues

t

the

would-be

tlesigner

of

Alliso1lJ33-A-

35

-Ma1lufacturer:

Allis01I

Divisioll,

Illdimtapolis.

USA.

thrust:

20.5

kN

£11

11.750

rpm,

throughput

39.5

kg

/s

pressure

ratio:

4.25,

exhaust

gas

temperature:

686

° C

mass:

826

kg

1

q

illdi iduai

combustioll chambers.

Used;'l Lockheed

F80

Shootillg

Star

alld

Lockheed

T33.

\

\

16

Mod

e

lJ

et

llgill s


Examples

o

he

Turbomeca Marbore

II

can

befound

in

many

museums.

Continuous

thrust:

3.1

kN at

21.000

rpm.

maximum

thrust:

3 9

kN

at

22.600

rpm

limited to

15

minutes).

pressure

ratio:

4

mass:

146

kg,

length:

1 566

m.

diameter: 567mm.

Mudel et

1J ,illes

17


duration

.

Of

course

,

very small

profe~

ionally

built

gas

turbines

do

exist

,

and

the

modeller

can

draw inspiration

from

them

.

This

type

of

miniature engine

is

often

utilised

where

high levels

of propul



sive

power

must be

combined

with low

weight

and

compact

ness

.

For

example

, a

portable

fire

-

fighting

water

jet has

been

built

powered

by

a

miniature

gas

turbine made

by

the

company of

Kloeckner

Humboldt

-

Deut

z.

Most

of

the

engines

of

this

type

are

based

on

radial

compressors

and

some

of

them

even use

radial

turbines

.

The

AllisonJ33

-

A-35

is

a

typical

represelltatil

e

of

he

Whiffle sclJool

of

desigll,

here with

the

double-J1uted

compressor

clearly

l

;sible.

Each combustion chmnber

is

assiglled

to

1W

duct

of

he

compressor diffuser

system.

rone engines and

APUs

(Auxiliary

Power

Units)

Small

jet engines are

often

used

in

unmanned

air

craft (drones)

,

which

are

usually

de~ignt: d

for

a

short

flight

duration

and are subsequently

dis

posed

of

after being

usnl

once

.

For

this

rea

son the

engines

art:"

also

designed

for

a

short

life.

The

main design criteria

for

these

units

a

re

low

weight

and

,

above

all,

minimum

possibk

cust

.

Perspective

cut

-

away

drawing

of

he

Marbore (from:

Letst,

Encyclopedic,

of

et

engines

[Germcmj).

A

typical single-use

engine

of

this

type

is

the

Williams

WR

2

made

by

modd

jet

engine

s.

In

order

to keep

the

frontal

area

of

the

engine

small

the

de

sign

ers employed

an

ultr.

low

-

profile

compressor

diffuser system

.

The

diffuser

vanes

were

arra

nged

in

two

rings -

one

radial,

directly

aft

of

the

compressor wheel

, a

nd

one

axial

at the periphery

of

the dif

fuser

system

,

after

the

direction

of

the

airflow

had already

been

ddkcted

.

Thi~

neat

trick allowed

the

company to

build relatively slim

engines

which

were

very

robust.

The

sa

me

general

type

of

diffuser

system

is also

used success

fully in

model

jet

engines

.

Prototypes

for

model

jet

engines

Old jet engines

can

certainly give

us

ideas for

small model versions

,

hut there

is

no point

in

talking

of

ac

tual

prototypes

.

To

my

knowledge

, fully

working

j

et

engines

small

enough to

be used

to

propd

a

standard

modd

aircraft

did

not

exist until

the

late

ROs

t

is

tru

e

that ama



teurs made

many

atte

mpts

at

co

ns

tructing engines

to

model

scale,

but any success they achieved

was

of

short

18

Williams

Research Corp.,

Walled

Lake,

USA,

which was used

in

the

Canadair C189

reconnaissance dron

e. Fuel is

injected

via fine

openings

in

the rotating engine

shaft,

which

acts

as

a

cemrifugal

pump

.

Tht:"

compre

ssor and turbine rotors

are

each

manufactured in

one

piece

using

a

pn:cision casting

process.

This

little

engine

's

rorational

speed and

gas

temperature

are

vt:"ry

high,

with

the

result

that

it

achieves

an

exc

el

lent

pressure

ratio and

efflux

velocity

,

comparabk

to

the

performanct:

values for

full

-s

ize

engines

of

similar

design.

At

the

same time

the

stresses

due

to temperature and

centrifugal

forc

e rise

to

such

levels

that

the

turbine wheel can

only

survive

for

a

few minute

s.

Tht:"

most

common

application for

professionally

built

small

ga '.

turbines

is

the

APlJ,

or

Auxiliary

Power

Unit. TIlese

are

supplememary

aircraft

engines which provide

additional

power

when required

.

Small

shaft

power

engines are used

to

drive

electrical generators

or

hydraulic

systems

.

Often these

gas

turbines can

also

sup

ply

compressed

air in

order

to

start

the

main

engines.

.

HodelJ

et EI/gil/cs


The

KHD

Tl12

is

a

typical

APU

.

Other

examples

are

the

T212

air

pump

and

the

T312

used

in

the Tornado

.

These

engines

were

developed

and

huilt

at

Oherursel

near

Frank

furt.

The rotors are

almost

of

model size

,

and

the

compressor

consists

of one

axial stage and

one

radial

stage

.

The comhustion chamber

is

designed

as

a

reverse

flow

type

in

order

to

save

space

.

After

the combustion

chamber

comes

a

two



stage

axial

turbine

.

The

axial

compressor

stage

is

particularly

note



worthy

, as

the

blades

of

this

trans

-

sonic

wheel

run

at

supersonic

speed at

full

load

.

These

hlades prove

that

it

is possible

to

design

very

small

axial

compressors

capable

of

achieving

high

levels

of

efficiency

.

In

technical terms

the

engines

of

this

type

are

very

highly

refined

power

plant

s,

and

any

amateur

attempt

at

emu



lating

them

would

c

er



tainly

he

doomed to

failure

.

Even

so

,

it

is

obvious

that

much

small

er

ga

s

turhines could

have

heen

made

if

a

need

for

them had

arisen

.

Williclms WR2,

built

1962

tIJrust:

550

Newtolls,

speed:

60,000

rpm,

tIJrougIJput:

1

kg/s,

pressure

ratio:

4.1,

diameter:

274

mm,

mass:

13.6

k

a

gellerator

is

built

illto

the

illtake

opellillg.

In

the

meantime

KHD

has

been

taken

over

hy

BMW

and

Rolls-Royce

.

Even

today

the new

company

of

BMW Rolls

Royce

GmhH

continues

to

work

on

full

-

size engines

and small gas

turbines

.

KHD

T112,

built

1963

lellgtIJ:

789

1Il1ll

dic,meter:

368

mm,

tIJroughpllt:

0.86

kg

/s,

pressure

ratio:

4.96,

speed:

64.000 rpm. 104

k

shaft

power.

IIWSS:

34.1

kg,

II

starter

is

fitted

ill tIJe

air

;'llake.

Hyper-charging

There

are

other

oun t ~

of

idea~

for

the

modeller

interested

in

miniature

jet

engines

.

Another

area

which

at

first

sight

has

nothing

to

do with

jet

engines can

,

in fact

,

give us

some

interesting food

for

thought

.

Indeed

.

this

is

an

area

where

some

important components

c

an

even

he

us

ed

directl

y in

our

model

jet

engine

.

What

we

are

talking

ahout

is

exhau

st

turhocharger

s. A

turhocharg



er

is basically a

compressor

which

is

used

to

feed

pre



compre

s

sed

air

to

a

piston engine

.

Thi

s

technique

increases

the

engine

's

air

throughput so that

it

ill

hurn

more

fuel

and

produce

more

power

.

The engine

's

Jlodel./et

t

gi

ll

s

exhaust

ga

s

es

flow

through

the

t

urhocharger

a

nd

drive

the

compres

s

or

via its

turhine

stage

.

Therefore

in

s

ide

every

turhocharger there

are

a

turhine and

a

compres



sor.

A di

sadvantage

of

exhaust turbo

-

ch

a

rging

is

the

delayed

response

of

the

turbocharger

.

f

the

driver

sud



denly

opens the

throttle

from idle

the

charger pressure

is very

low

,

and

therefore requires

a

certain

amount

of

time

to get

up to

s

peed

.

Thi

s

accounts

for

what

drivers

of

turhocharged

cars

know

as

turbo

-

lag

.

In

modern

turhochargers

the

i

nertia

of

the

rotor

is

so

low

that

turho

lag is ha

rely

per

c

eptihle

.

One

very

neat

solution

to

this problem

is

the

hi

-

turho

,

where two

small

chargers

,

with

19


E:..perimental

ga turbine

based on

Cl

turbocharger.

correspondingly

short

rt:sponse

time

are used instead

of

one

larger

one

. For

special

purposes

a

further

alternative

is available::

which can be

used

to shorten the response

time

of

a tur-bochargc::r

to

zero

-

this

technique

is

known

as

hyper-charging and

it

exploits

the

fact

that

a

turhocharger

is

already

almost

a

gas

turbine.

The

housing

of

the charger

accommodates

a

turbo compressor and

a

turbine

.

The

Itlternall'iew

oflh

KHD

T112

showing the two

axial

turbine

stages

and

the

ret'erse floit'

combustion chamber.

The

turbi e rotors are

100

mm

alld 130

mm

in

diameter

-almost

model

size

already.

throughput

of

the

tur



bine

stage

is

accurately

matched to

that

of

the

compressor

for

the

mass

of

the exhaust

which

the

engine::

emits is

exactly

the

same

as

the

mass

of

fresh

air

it

ingests

.

The

mass

of

the

fud

fed

to the engine

is

so

small

that

it

can

be

ignored

.

The exhaust

gas

turbocharger

is

there-

fore almost

a

gas

tur



bine

;

all it

lacks

is

a

combustion cham

her

.

20

In

tht:

case

of

a

hyper-

charger

the

turhocharg-

er

is

connected

to

a

combustion chamber.

When

the

main

engine

is

idling

the

valves

leading

to the

combustion

cham-

ber

arc

open

and

fuel is

injected

and

burned.

The turbocharger

is

tem-porarily

converted into

a

gas

turbine

by

this

lv1ode/Jet Enp ines


Fresh

lir

Piston

engine

turbocharger

ExlJaust

gas

Diagram

of

a

turbo-engine.

h

Fresh

air

i

g

a-

b

d

e

Exbaustgas

Diagram

of

hyper-cbarging

system:

a

piston

engine,

b

exbaust

gas

duct,

c fueljet,

d

combustion cbamber,

e)

exbaust

gas duct

to

turbilze,j

turbine,

g

inlet mallifold,

b

vallIe,

i

turbocbarger compressor.

means

and

therefore maintains

a

high

rotational

speed

.

The

main

engine

now

has high

charger pressure

available

at

any

time

with

ze ro

lag

and

the ne t

re sult

is

that

the engine can

produce::

high

torque even

at

low

e::ngine s

peeds. Hyper-charging

repre::se::nts

highly

spe::cialisnl te::chnolo-

Mode

l et

IIR

ill

s

gy

and

is

seldom used

.

Its

main

applic

a

tion

is

to

provide::

brief

increases in

power

in

diesel

engines

.

For

example

the

BKS

proce

ss de::vdope::d

by

MT

U

Motoren-und Turbinen-

U

nion

Munich) for

military

tank

e::ngine::s

exploits

thi

s

technology

.

The

vital

point

of

all

this

is

that

the modeller can

21


exploit t:xhaust

gas

turbochargt:rs

as a

source

of

parts

for

modd

jd

t ngint~

Tht:

dfickncy

kvels

achieved by

tur



bocharger

comprtssors and

turbines arc

sufficiently

high to

enabk

a

~mall

gas

turbint:

to

nm

;

and

this

applks

to

vtry

small

units too.

as

shown

hy

the

performanct:

graphs

of

a turho-t:ngine. At full

throttk

turbocharger

pressurt:

rises far

abovt:

txhaust

pn::ssurt:.

You

might

think that

this indicatt:s a

rist

in

gas prt:ssure

insidt: tht:

combustion

engint:.

but this

is

not

so

.

This

is

what

happens

:

simply

ht:ating

the

gast:s is

sufficknt

to

drive

the

turbocharger

.

It

would

aIM

run

if

tht:

t:ngine

were

removed

and

a

simple combustion

chambt:r

wt:rt:

installed

bctwcen comprcssor

and

turbine

. I

constmctt:d

just

such

an

engint:

for t:xptrimt:ntal

purposes. hased on

a

scrappnl

lorry

turbochargt:r

with

a

rotor

diamt:tt:r

of 76 mm

. Tht:

combustion chamber

con-

sistnl

of

a

tin can

, allll tht:

t:nginc

was

run

on

prupant:

gas. It is

only

really

possible to start

this

monstrous

cre



ation

using a

vacuum

dt:aner

fan.

Even

when

the

tlame

is

burning

in tht:

combustion

chamher

some

patienct:

is

calkd

for

,

since

the

engine

will

not

nm

until tht: oil in tht:

bearings has

rt:acht:d

its opt:rating tcmpt:rature and

the

rotor

system

floats

on the

film

of

lubricant

.

Wht:n

the

engine

is

running

,

lubricating

oil is

pumped

into

tht: tur

bocharger

bt:arings

from

an

oil

tank

connt:ctnl

to

com



bustion

chamber

prt:ssure

.

If

you

art: intt:rt:sted in

trying this

out

.

pkase

hear

in

mind

that

this crudt:

object

is

nt:verthdt:ss

a fully

li.ll1c

tional gas

turhine with

all

its

inht:rt:nt

characteristics,

and

that

it

must

thert:fore

be

handled with

appropriatc

IU

tion.

For

safety s

sake

you should

ket:p

tu

a

maximum

com-

pressor

prt:ssurt:

of

0.3

bar

-

which

t:quatt:s

to

a

rotation-

al

spt:ed

of around

SO,OOO

rpm

in this

case

. Tht:

turbine wheel can

bt:

obst:rvnl with

the

hdp

of

a

mirror and

the

gas

supply

throttkd

back

if

it

starts glowing

more

brightly than

dull

rn\.

Liquid

fuds

such

as

pdrol or

dksd

shoukl

not

be

used

, again in tht:

interests

of

safety

, sinct:

liquid

fuel tt:nds

to

collect in

the compressur

housing

if

it is

not

burned

immediately

.

When

the

t:ngint

is

nUl

up

to

spttd

this

fud

is

then

disturbed

and

burned.

U

this

ou

:

urs

thc

cngine

may

thcn

accelerate uncontrollably

and

run

up to dangtrously

high

speeds.

Frank

Whittlc

encountered

similar

problems

during

his

first

experiments

in April

1937

.

t

is

reported that

Whittk

opened

tht

fud

valve

of

his Wl

i

(Whittk

Unit) frum

an

initial

speed

of

2,300

rpm

.

Immediately

the

engint

ran

out

of

control

,

accderating

very quickly

and

emitting

a

deafening wailing noise.

whtrtupon

everyont

exctpt

Whittk

himself immediately

ran

for

cover

.

The

reason for this

unt:xpt:cttd bchaviour was

It:aking fuel

lines

in

tht

combustion chamber.

Evt:n

before

the

engint:

was

ignitt:d,

pools

of

ktrostne

formed

and

imme-

diatdy

caught

light.

kading

to

uncontrollable

comhustion

and

very

high

gas

ttmper,llures

.

arly

model

jet

engines

Many amatt:urs

have made hrave

attempts

at

building model jet

cngines

.

but

until

rectntly

tht

SUCCtSS

rate

has

been

moot:st

. A

good

few

engines

havt

been constructed

using

admirabk

manual

skill

and

hundrcds

of

hours

of

tendt:r loving

care

,

but

tvt:n

so

they are

destined

for

a

quiet

life

in

a

colkctor

s

showcase

. [n

some

cases the

rt:asons

for

failurc

can

be

seen

just

by glancing

at

the

t:ngine.

22

All

those turbine

dcsigns which have

comc

to

my

notict

.

and which

ont

can

believe might have

run.

have

ont:

feature

in

common:

they

impltmt:nt

the

basic physi-

cal

working

principlc using

thc

simplcst

possibk mems.

In

virtually

every case

the

air

is

compressnl

using

a

single

-

stage

radial

comprtssor

,

and the

turbint stctinn

also

employs only

a

singk

wheel.

Ntvertheless

, a

numbt:r

of

moddlers

have

actually

suc



ceeded

in making

Vtry small

cngincs

which were

capable

of

running,

and

havt

used

them

to

propd

model

aircraft:.

The

next

st:ction

lkals

briefly

with

several different

mouel

jet

tngine

types

. Many

of

them are

not

in

USt

today any

more

.

New

powerhll

successors

supplanttd

thtm

,

hut

especially

ht:rt

wc

can scc

the:

differcnt

approaches the constructors

chost

to

reach

thdr

targtt

, a

real

work



ing

model

jet

engint

.

Max

Dreher s

Baby

Mamba

Whtthcr

this

is

redly

a

model

jct

cnginc depends

on your point

of

vkw

.

The engine

is

several

magnitudcs

smaller

than

a

normal

aviation

engint

.

but

is still a

touch

too

large for

moddling

use.

The

Baby

Mamba,

or

mort:

accurately

the

TJD- 76C,

was

devdoped

and

huilt

in

the mid

iOs

by

rthtr

Enginccring

(USA)

.

The

whole

engine

has

a

mass

of

6. S

kg

,

its

diameter

is

lSI

mm

,

overall

length 416 mm

.

Tht

Baby Mamba

produces

a

thrust

of

200

Ntwtons

which can

be

increased to 240

Newtons for

britf

periods

,

at

which point

the rotor

spttd

is

96

,

000 rpm

.

Originally

thc

Baby

Mamba was designcd as an

auxiliary

power

source

for

gliders

and

as

a

power

plant

for

lightweight

dronts.

Ont

fetture

of

this

engine

worth mtntioning

is

its

unconventional compres-

sor

design.

The

Baby Mamba

is

ont

of

the

few

tngines

which utilist

a

diagonal

comprtssor.

This typc

of

com-

pressor

gentratts

a

prcssure

ratio

of

.l.R

from

a

singk stage

.

Of

courst

,

this

is

slightly

lower

than

can

be

obtained

with

a radial

compressor

at

the

same

peripheral

spttd

,

but the

diagonal

compressor

makes

up

for

this

with

a

much

smaller frontal

area

.

For

this

rcaSon

the

Baby

Mamba

is

an

txtremely

slim aircraft

tngine.

Unfortunately

the tngine

is

too

complt:x

to

be

copinl

at true

modd

scale

.

The turbine and combustion

chamber

are

made

of

heat

-

rtsistant

nickd

-

based

alloys,

and these

materials

are

difficult for

the

moddkr

to

obtain

.

The

design

of

the compressor

also

calls

for

too much

exptr

tise

from

the exptrimenter.

The

distribution

rights

to

the

Baby

Mamba

art

owned

by

Franz

Kavan.

but

tht

enginc

is

of

no

significance for

model applications

.

The Swedish

PAL

System

and

its

successor Turbomin

Back

in

1982

thrte

Swedes

succttdnl

in

building

a

working model

jtt

tnginc.

The name

of

the

dtsign

is

derived

from

tht: Initials

of

tht

constructors

: Prisel.

Almc

and

Lyrsdl

.

Thc

core

of

the

cngine

is

the

rotor

of

a

Garret

turbochargtr

,

conSisting

of

a

radial

compressor and

a radial

turbine

.

Thc

actual

engine

is

built

around

tht

stan

dard

rotor

.

One

notable feature

of

this engine

is

the

lltsign

of

the

comhustion

chambtr

,

which

is

annular

and

arranged

around

tht

t:xhaust

cont

.

As

a

result it

can

bt

made

as

long as

tht

designer

wishes

since

it

dots

not

have

to

fit

bctwctn

comprtssor

and turbine

.

Reports

state

that the

engint

has

productd

a

thrust

of

120

Newtons

at

a

rotational

speed

of

10 i,

000 rpm

at

full

throttk.

Tht

PAL

jtt

engine

is

460

mm long

, I

SO

mm

in

diamt:tt:r

and

has

a

mass

of

4

kg

.

Type

JP4

kt:rosent was

/v o

de

el F.IlRilles


used

as

fuel.

Although

these

figures

are good.

the

P L

system

was

not

adopted

for

model

fly·

ing

;

at

least

.

not during

the period

in

which

it

was

lkvelopnl.

Since that

time

the

Swedish

firm

of

Compressor

Turbine Comhllslio

cba ,her

Fllel ;1ljector

jet

Exbaust

cOile

Turbomin

has

produced

another

version

of

the

engine

which

reflects

further development

work.

TIle

basic

design

,

with

its characteristically

large

reverst -t1ow

com·

bustion

chamber

,

has

Diagram

o

he

PAL engine.

been

retained

,

and

this

means that

it

is

possible to use

actual

full·size fuel

of

the

JET

Al

type

of

kerosene.

Fuel

enters

the

combustion

chamber

via five

injector

nozzles,

derived

from

the

atomiser

nozzles

used

in an oil fired

bumer

.

t

full

throttle the Turbomin consumes

:\30

ml

of

kerosene

per

minute at

an

injector pressure

of

10

bar

,

and develops

a

thrust

of

7S

Newtons

.

The maximum

rotational

speed

is

100.000

rpm

.

and

the

pressure

ratio

is

.

The

starting

procedure

is

ingenious

: initially fuel is

fed

to

the

engine

hy

a

separate

fuel

pump

in

the

pit

box

.

However

,

the kerosene

only

reaches

the

combustion

chamber through one

of the

five

atomiser

nozzles

,

where

it is

ignited

hy

a high-voltage

spark

plug

.

Only

at

this

point does

the

actual

injector

pump

start running

, taking

over the

fuel

supply

system completely

.

The

rotor

is

run

up

to speed

using

compressed

air

applied

directly to

the compressor

wheel.

All

in all

the Turhomin

TN

75

is

a

very

solid

jet engine

.

Great

emphasis

has

heen

placed

on the

simplicity

of

the

design

,

and expensive

high

-

tech components

have

heen

largely

avoided

in

the

interests

of

low price

,

even

though

this has

limited

its

potential

performance

.

For

example

,

the

hall

races used

a

re simple standard bearings

.

and

the rotor

system

is a modified

unit

from

a

Garrett

turhocharger

. In

actual use

The

compressor wheel made

o

high-quality plywood, reinforced

with

CUl·bOfljibre.

(Photo: Schreckling)

Mod

el jel Engi ies

in

the

field,

the

turhine

is

impressively simple

to

handle

. Mainremlllce

work can

and should

he

carried

out

hy

the customer

,

including

bearing replacemenr

.

For

the

highly

stressed

rear turbine

bearing

the

estimated

exchange

interval

is

100

flights.

The

TN

7S

weighs

3

kg

including

the

fuel

pump

.

The

diameter

is

148

mm

,

the

length

·

i2S

mm. This makes

the

engine

one

of

the

heavier

types

cur-

rently

available

,

and quite

a

large

model

is

required

to

accommodate

it

.

urt

Schreckling s

FD

series

In

my

opinion

the

FD

engines

(FD

Feuer

-

Dosen

.

gas

ca

nister)

represent the most nota

hie

achievement to date

in

the

area

of

model

jet

engin

es.

Kurt

Schreckling wa

s

the

first

modeller

successfully to

construct

very

small,

lightweight

jet

engines using amateur

means.

His

starting

poim

was

not

full-size

jet

engines

;

instead

he

Tbe

Baby Mamba

-

all

eye-catchillg

picture on the

Kal

all

catalogue.

23


took

the

fundamental

principles

of the

gas

tumine

as

his reference point

and

worked

from

the

ground up

.

The

focal

point

of

his consideration

was

thi

s:

what

was

the

hest way

of

making small

rotors

in

urder

tu

achieve maximum possihle

efficiency?

The

outcome

w ~

a

radial

compressor

with

many

ingeniuus features

: a

rotor with

sub~t nti lly

retro-curved blades

and

a

cover

plate

.

This

is a

type

of construction

widely used

in

industrial

fans,

hut probably never before used

in

a

jet engine

.

The cover

plate

over

the

blade

s

almost

complete

ly

avoids

the

gap losses

which

are critical

in small

engine

s. A

further

advantage

of

thi

s

type

of

compressor

is

its

non

-te

mperamental

behaviour

.

Whether the rotor

is

required

to

move

a

large

or

small

quantity

of

gas

,

the

unit

's

efficiency usually stays

at a

high

level.

The

only drawback

is

the rotor

s

slightly

lower

maximum

rotation

al

speed compared with

a

wheel

not

fitted

with

a

cover

plate

.

The compressor

is

driven

by

an

axial

turbine

.

This

is

made

of

1. ;

mm

thick

sheet

metal.

The

hlade profile

is

worked

from

the

solid using

a

mini

-

grinder

.

Before Kurt

Schreckling

completed

his

first

working engine he

car

ried

out

many

experiments with compressors

and

tur

bines

.

He

found that

the

efficiency

of

each

stage

was

so

good that

the

engine

was

bound to

work

-

at

least

,

according

to theory

.

The

first

engine that he persuaded to run was

an

experimental unit which was

not

recognisable

externally

as a

gas

turbine

.

The

FD

2:

tlJefirst

clirll'orlhJ

lIlocleljel ellgille

powered

bJ'

IlormalJillillg

station

fllels.

(Pboto: SclJreckling)

The

next

-

but

-

one

ver



sion

-

the

FD 2 -

was

already

such

an

improve



ment

that

it

proved

capable:

of

propelling

a

model

aircraft.

This early

engine

could

already

run

reliably

on

liquid

fud

: a

mixture of

diesel and about

1

'~

petroL

The

engine

's

compressor

whed

was

made

of

ply



wood

as

in

his

initial

experimental work

.

hut

in

this case

it

was

wrapped

with carbon

fibre to

reinforce the

rotor

and

the cover

plate

.

This

construction

has

proved

strong enough

to

withstand peripheral speeds of

more than

300

m/s

with



out

failing.

The

ED

3,

here

installed

in

Ibe Rlltollius lIlodeljet aircraft.

24

The engine

was

developed further

to produc

e

the

FlJ 3

and

finally a

production ver



sion

in kit-form

. All

the

engines

in

the scries

feature

;1

compressor wheel huih

as

des

crihed

.

ahhough

the

production

version

is fit

ted with

a

compressor

wheel

cast

in

aluminium

alloy.

Another character



istic

feature

of

the

FD

series

is

the

fuel

vapori

sation

system.

It

seems

likely

that

il

was

this

sys

tcm

together

with

the

comhustion

cham

her

that absorbed

most

of

the

designer s

experi



mental

lahours

.

The

vaporiser

itself

consists

of

a

coiled tuhe about

one

and

a

half

metres

long

.

located inside

the

comhustion

chamher

. A

gear

pump

pushes

liqUid

\ fo

de/ /e/ f:/I

g

i/lcs


fud

into

the hot

vaporist:r

where

tht:

fud

,

still

under

prt:ssurt:

, is

par

tially vaporist:d.

s

pres



sure falb off more

fud

vaporises

in

the

injec



tion

openings

Icading

into

the comhustion

chamher

The residue

of

tht:

fuel. still in

liquid form

. is

injected into

tht:

com



hustion

chambt l in fine

particles

where

it

hums

successfully

. U

sing this techniqut:

the designer

was successful

in

crt:at



ing

engines which

would

run

on

Standard Filling

Station

fuds

This

is

an

important

Ikvdopmellt

,

as

modd

jet

engines

will

only become widespread

if

they are

easy

to operate

.

The

kilr'ersioll

Of

he

ED

3

is

produced

bJ

the

Austria jirm

o

Scblleider-SallC:hez..

FD

engines

do

not

need

propane

gas

,

which

,

although

it

does hurn

a

nly

and

easily

,

is

a safety risk in a

modd

aircraft

.

Tht:

thermodynamic data

of

the

FD

engines are

as

unusual as

the

overall

design

.

The

pressure

ratio

is

very

low

,

reaching

a

value

of

only

1.';

at

full

throttk

. As a result

the whole engine can

be

of

very lightweight

con

-

RulOll;US,

presellted by

its

uil~ler

Kurt

Schrecklillg.

.

od

l

Jet HIlf ,illes

stnlction

.

The

sealing

of

the housing

prest:nts

no

major problems

. Tht:

exhaust

temperature

is in tht:

range

uo°C

to

6';O°C -valut:s

at

which

ordinary

316

stainkss

skel

can

still -just -bt:

usnl

as

turbine

material

if rotational

speeds

are

kt:pt

t

moderate

levels.

The

jet

efflux

speed

25


This

modified

FD 3/

64features

a

compressor

1I IJeeilllaciJilledfrolll

the

solid.

Tbe

builder

decided

llot

toji

a COI er

ol el lhe

compressor.

is

about

200

mIs

,

which

is

rdatively low in comparison

with

full-size engim:s.

As

a

direct result

of

this

the

engine

is

very

quiet

in

operation.

The

familiar

thunderous

noise

of

full-size jet

engines

is

primarily

a

function

of

their

very

high efflux

speed

,

and

the

FD

engines

side

-

step

this prob

lem

.

The engine

s

thrust

of

30 Newtons

is

high

for

an

engine

mass

of

about 7 )0

g,

and

this

is

due

to

the

consid

erable

throughput

.

The engine

is

16 )

mm

long

and

110

mm

in

diameter

.

These

figures make

the

FD

3

hard

to

beat

in

terms

of

thrust/weight

ratio

;

even

full-size

jet

engines do not

always

achieve

such good

values

. In

overall

terms

the

FD 3

must

be

judged

an

effective

model

jet

engine

,

and

it

has

alrt:ady

proved

its

rdiability

and

practicality

in many

mod

ds

.

Thanks

to the

constructional

drawings

produced

by

Kurt Schreckling

many modellers have already

produced

their

own

versions,

which

have

bee:n

made and

flown

in

many

parts

of

the

world.

Turborec

T240

from

PX

JPX, a

company

based

in Vibraye

in

Northern

France

,

was

the

first firm

to produce

a jet

engine

specially

devdoped

for model

aircraft.

The company

s first mrbine:,

the Turborec

T240,

was

manufactured and marketed

as

far

back as

19 -)

I.

t

is a small

engine with

a radial

compres

sor

and

radial

turbine

.

The

design

is

based on

develop

ment

work

carried

out

by

the:

Frenchman

Michel

Serrier

,

who had

worked

on producing

a

practical

model jet engine since

the

mid-80s

.

For

his

experiments he

used

the complete rotor

of

a

small

turbocharger

of

60 mm diameter

.

In

taking

this

approach he

started with

the

advantage

of

a

complete

,

professionally

manufactured

rotor

system

.

The compressor

whed

and turbine wheel are

accurately

matched to

each other

in

terms

of

through

put

and are

of

good

effiCiency.

In addition

the turbine

whed

is

made

of

high-strength.

heat

-

resistant materials

:md

Gm

withstand

very high

loads

in

terms

of

tempera

ture

and

rotational

speed.

The

e:ntire

rotor

is

surrounded

by

a spe:cially

made

housing

.

In

contrast

to

a

turbocharge:r

this

de:sign employs

rings

of

guide

vane:s.

The

compressor

diffuser

system

is

similar

to

that

of

the

Turbomeca

Marbore

,

i.e

.

it

features

one

radial

ring

and

one:

axial ring

of

guide vanes

,

milled from

aluminium

alloy

.

The individual vanes are

machined

from

the

solid

on

CNC

milling machines.

The combustion

chamhe:r

was

designed

to

flm

on propane

gas

only

,

although

that

does not

apply

in

the

latest

modds

.

The

liquid gas

first flows

through

a

ring

welded

onto

the hot thrust

nozzle

.

This arrangemem represents

a small he:at

exchangc:r

,

which

partially

vaporises

the

fuel.

The

propane:

e:ve:ntually

readles

the

turbine

s

throttle

,

where

a

needle

valve is

used

to

control

the

gas

flow

,

and

with

it

the

turbine

s

rmational

speed.

second adjustable

throule

limits

the

fuel flow

to

the

combustion chamber.

Us

ing this technology

the:

engine

ofkrs

clean

and

almoSl

complete cumbustion

.

For

the

same reason

a fuel

pump

is

not required

since

the

gas

is

under

pressure and

re:adily

flows

into

the

e:ngine.

After

the:

combustion

cham

TheJPX

T240,

thejirst

series-produced

model.iet

ellg; le.

ber

the

hot

gases

flow

intu the

nozzle

gUide

vane system

.

This

sec



tion

is

also different

(()

a

turbocharger because

it

features guide

vane:s.

The hot

gas

,

now

at

a

temperature

of

around

7 50°C,

eventually reach

e:s

the turbine wheel

,

where

it

gives

up

the

major part

of

its

energy.

The

remaining

heat

loss

takes place

in

the

high

volume

thrust

nozzle

.

The working

gas

finally

leaves

the

engine

after

being accelerated

to

a

speed

of

more than 300

m/s

.

26

The

T240 produces

a

thrust of

around

·i 5

Newtons

at

full

throttle

and

a

rotational

speed

of

122,000

rpm

.

The

pres

sure

ratio

is

around

2.1 ,

.Wodel]et Eng

ines


the exhaust

tempt:rature

approximately

6500C.

Further

thermodynamic

data

has

not yet

heen puhlished

hy

JPX

,

although

calculations

indicate:: a

throughput

of

around

0.13

kg/s

and

an

exhaust

spe::ed

of

345

m/ >

.

The

comhustion

gas

temperature

is

proh

ahly

arouml

R300C. At

these operating

values the

Turhorec

achieve::s a

very

commendabk

fud

consumption

of

around

135

g

gas

per minute

.

This

corresponds

to

a

volume

of

approximate

ly

270

ml

of

liquid

gas

.

The

mass

of

the

T240

is

1.

7

kg

,

the

kngth

335

mm

,

the

maximum

diam

eter

116

mm

.

The engine has

heen

the

suhje::ct

of

a

continu

ous programme

of

modi

The

JPX

turbille

il

the

test

stalld

fication

and development

. Its

direct successor

,

the

T250P

, offers

increased

thrust

com

hi

ned

with

lower

engine

mass. JPX

quotes

a

continuous

power

rating

tllr

this

engine

of 49 Newtons at

a

speed

of

1 I

H,

) )O

rpm

.

The

engine

weighs

1.55 kg

plus

auxiliary

equipment.

The::

thrust

of

the

turhine

can

be increased

to

a

maximum

of

59

Newtons

for

a

brief period,

for

example

,

at

take-off. Further

development has resulted

in a

new

,

own-design

rotor

system

,

in

which the compressor

and

turhine

wheels

are

connected

to

each

other

hy

a largc-diame::tt:r

tuhular

shaft.

The wheels are manufactured

specitlcally for this

engine

.

The turbine based

on

this work

is

the

T260P

,

and

its

specified

power

output

is

60 Newtons

continuous

thmst

. Its mass

remains

at

1.7

kg

.

The

other

dimensions are

largely

the same

as

those

of

the

original

T240

version

.

These

later

engines

also

run on

propane

gas. Handling

the

fuel (liquid

propane

gas)

does require

a

cautious

,

circumspect approach

.

The only type of

fuel tank

which

can

he

used

is a

pressure container, and this must

be

located

close

to

the

Ce

ntre

of

Gravity

of the

model

aircraft.

Without

doubt propane

gas

represents

a

considerable

fire

hazard

.

f

the model should

catch

fire,

the

tank

represents

a

danger to

everything in

the immnli



ate

vicinity

.

For

this reason

a

fire

extinguisher

is

an

absolutely

e::ssential

component of

the standard

equip



ment

-

although

this

also

applies

to

other

types

of

jet

engine

.

On

the

other

hand

propane

gas

is a

clean

fuel;

the

modd

never

becomes soiled with spilt diesel

or

kerosene

. A

further advantage

is

the

lack

of probkms

in

igniting

the

mixture in

the

combustion chamber.

In

recent

years

great

efforts

have

be::e::n

made

in con



verting

the

turbines

to

nm

on

kerosene

.

On

several

occa



sions

the

company has

announced

series

production

of

the

K ve::rsion

designed

for liquid

fuel,

and

eventually

this version did

reach

the

model

shops

.

The

turhine

employs

a

numher

of

small

injector

nozzles

which atom



iSt;

the

kerosene very

findy

.

Some

JPX

owners

have

also

converted

their

own

engines

to kerosene

hy replacing

Mod

el jet

llg

lies

the

standard combustion

chamber

with

a

kerosene-hurning variam using

hooked tuhes

sticks)

. TIle

various

ver

sions for

Jet

A 1 fuel all

produce the

same

thntst

as

the propane

gas

powered

types.

JPX

turhines

have

proved

their

practicality at

numerous

tlying

events

,

and they

been popular and

successful

in

spite

of their

high

pur



chase

price

. Several kit

manufacturers have offered

ver



siems

of

their

models

that

;Ire

specially

designed

for

these

engines

.

There have even

been

models

which

have

were

designed

exclusively for

the

installation

of

the T240

or

their

successors

.

The importance

of

the

JPX

series

later

decreased

from

year to

year.

Othcr

construc



tions with

axial

turbine wheels

have

proven

faster

to

accelerate and more powerful.

Also

the

use

of

liquid

propane::

gas

has

always

been

a

disadvantage

compared to

the

easy

to

handle

kerosene

.

Modelkrs

using

the

Turborec need

a

considerable amount

of

auxiliary

equipment

:

compressed

air

is

needed

to start

the

engine.

This

is

fed

through

a

nozzle

to the

compressor

whecl.

The

Sophialiqllidfllelled

ellgitle

is

ofl

ery similar

tlppearallce

to theJPXfamily

27


Tbe

T250P

supplies plenty

oftbrust

wben

correctly

installed

;

tbe

fuselage

which

it

sets

in

rotation

. JPX

has

now

stopped

develop-

ing

and

producing this

famous

series.

odel

jet

engines

to

date

n

recent

years

various

nlrhines have

been

devdupnl

to

the

point

where

they are ready

for

series

production

, a

nd

are

now

available

to the keen modeller

.

The thrust

figures

rose

almost

from

year

to

year

and

have

reachnl

a

level

that

b

almost

too

high

for

man}'

amateur

pilots

.

Thrusts

of

l·iO

Newtons and

more

are

widespread.

Vertical

climhs are

easily

possihle if

the

model

weight

is

low

. At

the

s

ame

time

.

manufacturers

also

realised

the

demand

for

even

smaller

engines

.

With

higher

rotational speeds

it is

even possihle

to

huild

much

smaller

engines

th

en

descrihed

here

in

the building instructions

.

Compressor diameters

uf

unly

S

mm and beluw

are

used

in

commercial engines

. TIleSe small

units

reach

rotatiunal speeds

of

180, KK)

rpm and

more

.

Apart

from

their

main

use -

producing thrust

[

propel the

aircraft

-

these

very

small

engines

have

proven

ideal

for driving

a

second

stage free

turhine

to

deliver

shaft

power.

The

general

layout

has

become more

and

more

similar

nowadays

.

The

deSigns

follow

the

former amateur

con-

structions

, as

they have

proven

reliable

and

powerful.

All model jet

engines use

compressors

from

car

or

lorry tur

bochargers

.

The working turbine

is a

single

stage

axial

type

.

The

uSt

of

heat

resistant

alloys

such

as

Inconel 713

or ilJimoni<:

types

is

standard today

.

The design

of

the

combustion

chamber

has

heen

taken

over

from

the

home

huilt

engines

.

Prt

vaporisation

of

kerosene

in sticks

from

28

the rear

is

state

of

the

art

.

Only

AMT still

use

their

own

walking sticks

type

.

Burning

real

kerosene

in

model size

combustion chamhers was

formerly

a significant

problem

.

Nowadays most

combustors work

well

with

kerosene so that tanks with

liquid

propane

gas

are

no

longer required

.

Automatic starters

that

spin

the

engine

's

rotor

on

com-

mand

are

also Widely

spread

.

These motors

are

located

in

the

air inlet

.

When

started

,

the

inertia

of

the

clutch

press-

es

an

o-

ring

to

the spinner

of

the

compressor wheel.

As

long as

the

engine

's

shaft

doesn

't

overtake the starter

,

the

system

is

loosely

coupled.

Mirroring

developments

in

full-

size

engine

building

.

the

trend

has

been towards higher pressure

rouios

and

gas

temperatures

.

However

,

the

rise

has

heen

modest

,

and the

values

are

still a

long

way below those

usnl

in fullsize

aviation

.

As

a result it is

inevitable

that

fuel

efficien



cy

and

power

density

remain

inordinately

low

in

comparison

.

In

general terms

it

is

important

to

have

a

realistic

understanding

of

the complexity

of

all

the

model

jet

engines

currency

available

commercially

. Extremely

tight

manufacturing

tolerances arc

essential

where

all

the

revolving

parts are

concerned

,

otherwise there can

Ix-

no guarantee

of

long

,

trouble

-

free

operation.

Some

of

the

components

used

for

the

rotor.

especially

the

radial

com-

pressor

,

are

sourced

from

the motor car

industry

.

These

pans

are

dynamiGllly

balanced

with

great precision

at the

factory

,

and

this

ensures smooth running even

at

very high rotational

speeds

. Any

attempt

at improving

the

bal

ance

-

unless you have

expensive

special

equipment

-

or

even

dismantling

the

rotor

assemhly

incorrectly

,

almost

inevitably

results

in

a

worsening

of

rotor

halance

. Maintaining

the engine

in

the

amateurs

modeller

's

work-

shop

,

as

happens

with

small

piston engines

, is

generally

not possible

.

Most

manufacturers state

that

a

defective

engine must

be returned to

the manufacturer

,

or

an authorised service

centre

,

for

servicing

,

and

there

are

good reasons for this

.

The

jet

engine

's

control system

is

also

complic;lted

. Most

commercial turbines are supplied with control

units

that automatic

,tlly

regulate

the engine

,

hased

on

cnlcial

factors

such

as

rotational

speed

or

pressure

,

and

exhaust

gas

temperature

.

The control unit

's

software includes

a

special

program

sequence

for

staning the

engine

,

which ensures that the

fuel

tlow

is

metered

at

the

optimum

rate

,

the

propane

gas

for starting

can

enter

and the glow plug

is

turned

on

for

this moment.

These

facilities

make

engine operation

much

easier

and

also safer.

Today

many

engines

can

be

started and run completely

via

the

remote control. During

operation

the

rotational

speed

and

the

exhaust

gas

temperature

EGT)

are permanently

moni-

tored and

regulated

.

t

is

especially

important

that

the control

unit takes

into

account the

possibility

of

user error

,

and eliminates the

dangers

from

such

mistakes

. Playing

about with

the

throttle

stick

when

controlling

a

piston engine

does no

harm,

hut repeating the

experimem

with

an unregulated jet

engine

will

wreck

it

in very

short

order.

At

one

extreme the

rotational

speed

of

the

turbine

may

fall

below what we

call

the

sustain

speed

,

Le

.

helow

the

point

at which the

rotor

is

capable

of

accderating under

its

own

power

. At

this

point

the

compressor

and

turbine

are

working at

greatly

reduced

efficiency

,

and at

the

same time bearing friction has

;1

much

more

serious influence

. If

you

open

the throttle

in

this

state

,

any

turbine

will

he

damaged

or

even

mined

in

just a

few

seconds

.

Even

more

Mo

tiel et

EIl .illes


MTOlympus

Engine diameter mm)

130

Length mm)

267

Compressor diameter mm) 84 Turbine diameter mm) 84 Engine weight without fuel pump and ECU)

2475

Maximum rpm

108 000

Idle rpm

34 000

Thrust

@

max rpm Newton)

230

Pressure ratio

4.0

Fuel consumption ml/min)

800

Mass flow kg/s)

0.45

dangerous

is

the opposite extreme

,

which

is

the

turbine

s ability

to

run

away

uncontrollably. This

is

simpl)

the

n:sult

of

feeding

too

much

fuel

to

the

engine

,

and

allow

ing it

to

exceed

its

safe

maximum

rotational

speed.

The

latter case

is

panicularly

hazardous and

the

control unit

must

prevent

it

happening with perfect

reliability.

Any

modeller

who

uses

a

jet

engine

must

be

fully aware

of

the

special characteristics

of

the

se

power

plants

and handle

them

cautiously

and

responsibly

.

However

,

model

jet

engines can

be

considered

safe

provided

that

you observe

elementary

safety

precautions

aimed

at

prop



er

fuel

metering

and

the

avoidance

of

fire.

1.1.

TheJ-450 by Sophia

Precision

The

overall

design

of

the Japanese

J-4S0

turbine

is

very

similar

to

that

of

the

French

T 240:

here

again

we

find a

rotor

consisting

of

a radial

compressor

and

radial

turbine

.

The

majur difference

between the two

engines

is

the

combustion

chamber

system

:

the

J

4

50

uses

a

mixture

of

petrol

and kerosene

as

fuel.

Burning this

mixture

in

such

a small

combustion

chamber

presents

many

problems.

In

contrast to

propane

gas

,

the

liquid

fuel

has

to

be

very

finely

atomised

ur vaporised

.

For

this engine

Sophia

Precision

decided to

take

the

route

of

direct injection

through

small

atomiser

jets

,

using an

injector pressure

of

around

10

bar

at

full

throttle

.

The

high pressure

is

pro

duced

by

a

powerful clectric gear

pump

,

which sucks

the

fuel

mixture from

a

tank and forces

it

into

the

engine

.

Of

course

,

the

turbine could

also

be run on pure

kerosene

,

but

to

achieve

reliable

ignition

of

the

mixture

in

the

com



bustion

chamber

the

flash

point

of

the

fuel

must

be

very

low

.

To

achieve this

the

kerosene

is

mixed with

gasoline

,

which

is highly volatile

and therefore

a

serious

fire

haz

ard. Initially it

was

necessary

to

preheat the

J

4

50

with

a

hot

air

gun for several

millmes

if

weather

conditions

were

cool;

only

then

was

the

spark plug

proj

ect

ing

inside

the

combustion

chamber

capable

of

igniting

the

fuel.

However

,

the

se

probkm

s

had

been

solved.

The

engine

is

designed to

produce

a

continuous

thrust

of

around

5S

Newtons

,

but

it

can provide up

t

60

Newtons

if required

. Its

maximum pressure

ratio

is 2.4

at

a

rota



tional

speed

of

150

,

000 rpm

,

and these

figures

clearly exceed those

of

the

Tumon

c

T240.

The

Sophia Precision

J-450

weighs

1.8

kg

without the

fuel

pump

.

The

engine

did

not

feature a

speed

limiter

,

and

was

sold

without

a

regulator

.

~

with

the

JPX

turbines

,

compressed

air from

a

bottle

is

required

for

staning.

A lO-litre

steel bottle

is sufficient for 10

to

1 S

stans

.

The

moddler

.

who

used

the

Sophia

needed

a

lot

of

equipment and

technical

know

;

'[odel

jet

Ellg

lies

KH66 WREN MW54 JF-50

Bee

112 87 80 230 150 173 66 54 50 66 55 50 930 800 800 115 000 160 000 180 000 35 000 45 000 50 000 75

54

63 2.2 2.3 2.3 300 210 220 0.23

-0.18

-0

.2

how

.

The complicated

handling

and

the

progress with

other

designs

made

this

turhine::

become more and

more::

meaningless

.

Yet

even

today so

me

examples can

be

found

at

jet meetings

.

1.2.

AMT -

Advanced

Micro

Turbines

Really

trend

-se

tting

engines have

bee::n

de

s

igned

in

the Netherlands

.

Han

Jenniskens and Bennie

van

de Goor staned

early

in

the

90s

with

their turbine

constmctions

. Both

were experienced

pulse-je::t

builders

and

pilots

and

became

re::al

model

jet

pioneer

s.

They

have

been the

core

of

a

team and have

worked together

for

many years.

M;my

calculations and

experiments

have taken

place

in

1

~

and the

following years

. I

have

also

bee::n

in

comact

with

them and

we

exchanged

many ideas

.

The

company

of

Advanced

Micro

Turbine

s (AMT)

was

later

founded

specifically

to

manufacture

and

market

the

engines. This

philosophy has proved to

offe::r

many

advan

tage

s:

planning

,

development

,

testing and

production

are

all

carried

out

in-house

.

and this

results

in a

tumine

that incorporates

many

good

ideas

and

a

great

wealth

of

expe



rience

.

Their

first

engine

,

the

Peg;lsus Mk-2

ha

s

been

the

most powerful

production

model jet engine

for

years.

In

contrast to most

other

manufacturers

, AMT

decided un

a

genuine

axial

turbine

from

the

outset

; a

type

of

tur



bine

which

is

now

absolutely

standard

in all full-size

jet engines

.

With

an

axial

turbine the working

gas flows

par

allel

to

the

shaft

all

the

time

it

is

passing

through the rotor

.

The

only

component that

is

derived

from

a

tur



bocharger

is

the

radial

compre

sso

r

wheel.

The hot

devdopment

-

phase

began

in

1992

with

a first

The

Sophia

PrecisiOPIJ

4

50

installed

ll

a1l F86

29


The

AMT

Oi)'mpus,

Pegasus

and

Mercury famii)'

o

ellgilles.

El'en

Ihefirst

prototype AMT Pegasus

(Mk-l)

produced

a

thrust

o

100

N

The

blade

tips are

mOI ing

at

a

speed

o

about

1500

km

/

hr

atfull

throttle,

and

this

demallds

enormous

precisioll in

mallufacture. (Photo:

A

VIVA

Press,JooP

Wenstedt).

prototype

.

This

power

plant

was

fitted

with

an 84 mm

diameter

rotor

and

after

a

short period

of

development

it

was

already

producing

an impressive thrust

of

around

70

Newtons

.

Continual

improvements

in

the

area

of the

combustion

chamber

and

the

nozzle

gUide

vane

system

incre ~nl

t i~

figure

to

a final

value

of

100

Newtons

at

a

rotational

~peed

of

95

000 rpm

In

the

course

of

the next

few

years this

engine completed numerous test

flights

mounted

on

a

Heinkel Salamander

.

The

next prototype

the

Pegasus

Mk-3

retlected

a

further improvement in

the

technology

.

With

a

similar

rotor

consisting

of

a

Garrett

compressor wheel

and an

axial

turbine

the

engine

achieved

a

remarkable

150

Newtons

of

static

thrust at

a

he

NGV

systems

and

turbine wheels

ifthe

AMT

Oi)'mpus

and

Mercury

C£Ist

in

I conel

713.

iUo

del.l

et EIl

/

illes


pressure

ratio

of

3.5

; a figure

which

lies

in

the

r.mge

of

full-size

engines

of

similar design

_

This

engine proved

beyond

all

doubt the

feasibility

of

an

axial

tumine

in

a

model jet engine

.

This

level

of

power

was considered

no

longer appro·

priate

to

the model

aircraft

application

,

so

the production

engine

is slightly smalle::r.

The production

version

of

the

~lk

3

features

a

76

mm

diameter compressor wheel

,

which

is

part

of

a

high-throughput

Garrett

turbocharger

.

The diffuser

system

consists

of

two

rings

of

vanes

,

through which

air

tlows

first radially

and

then

axially.

The compressor

is

driven

by an

axial

tumine

wheel

,

manufac



tured

by

a

specialist

company

using

a

vacuum casting

process

.

The

material is a heavy-duty

heat

-

resistant

nickel·

based

alloy -

the

same

material from

which turhocharger components and

gas

turbine

vanes

are manufactured

.

The combustion

chamber of

the

Pegasus

Mk-3

is

designed

to

work with

Jet

A

1

kerosene

or

a comparable:: fuel,

injected

by means

of

so-called

sticks,

or

mixer tubes

.

These

tuhes

extend

into

the

combustion zone

of

the

com

bustion chamber

,

where

the

fuel

vaporises and

mixes with the comhustion

air.

The

injection

pressure required

for

this

to work

is

very low. Much

development

work

on optimising

the combustion

chamber

has

resulted

in a sim

ple::

. reliable::

system

: fuel is

burned

very

efficiently (Le

.

completely)

from

a

very

low

idle

speed

right

up

to

full

throttle

. For

starting it

is

necessary

to

pre

-

heat

the

comhustion

chamher

using gas from

a small

cartridge

,

and

the

mixture

is actually

ignited using

a

glowplug

.

The engine designers

also invested

some

fresh

think

ing In

the

matter

of

the rotor

bearings. They realised

that

the

extreme

rotational

speeds

encountered

in a

model

jet

engine

actually

called

for

a

lubricant

of

very

low

viscosity. In fact,

the

viscosity

of

the

kerosene

fuel

itself

was

suffi

cient

to

lubricate

the

bearings,

and

this

made

it possible

to

omit

the

oil

tank

generally

used

until

then.

Inside

the

engine

a

pipe

guides

a

few

percent

of

the

fud

to

the

bear

ings

.

To

ensure

effective

lubrication even

when the

kerosene

fud

is

ahove

its

hailing

point

,

4.5

%

of

turhinc

oil is atllled

to

the

fuel. TIle

engine

is fitted

with

hybrid bearings with

silicon-nitride

running

surfaces

.

The

Pegasus is

regulated

by

a

special micro-processor

controlled electronic unit.

A

sensor

picks

up the

rota

tional

speed

of

the

rotor,

while

a

thermo-dement

moni



tors

the exhaust

gas

temperature

in

the

thrust

nozzle::.

The electronic unit

then

controls

the

injector

pump on

the

basis

of

this

data and

the

position

of

the

throttle

stick.

The

unit

includes

protection

against

over

-

revving

,

and

also

prevents

the turbine running below the

safe

mini

mum

rotational

speed

.

The controller software provides

a

further program sequenct:

to

give reliahle

starting

.

The turbine

is also

stopped under

computer

control

. Before

the

fuel

supply

is

cut

off

,

the

engine

is

run

to

a

rotational

speed

at

which

the

exhaust

gas

temperature

is

at

a mini

mum.

Thb

means

that

little

heat

is

able

to penetrate

to the

delicate bearings

when

the

rotor

is

stationary

and

the

flow

of

cooling air non-existent

. SpeCial

software

is also available

to

allow

the

transfer

of

current

operational

data

from

the

controller to

a

Personal

Computer

via a serial link.

The

Pegasus Mk-3

was

rated at

a

continuous

thmst of

100

Newtons

,

and thus

represented the

top

end

of

the power

spectrum

of

model

jet

engines

for

some

years

.

The wrbine's

full

throttle speed

is

I05

,

0 ) J

rpm

.

At

this

speed

the

pressure

ratio is 3.

the throughput

0.28

kg/so

and the

efflux

speed

just

on

360

s

.

With

a

specific

consump·

oc

e

lj l

EIlRilles

tion

of

0,17

kg/Nih at

full

throttle

,

the

engine

is

extremt'

Iy

fmgal

on

fuel.

but

this

still

means

that

it

consumes the

suhstantial

quantity

of

3'50

ml

of

kerosene

per

minute

.

The

Pegasus

is

extremely

compact

,

with

a

diameter

of

120

mm

and

a

length

of

270

mm,

and weighs

2050

g

including

fuel

pump

and

electronics

. Many

of

these

fea

tun

:s

that

were

first

found

in

this engine are standard

on others

today.

Two

further engines have been developed

on

the

basis

of

this

proven

design.

The

first

was an even

more power

ful

variant

,

the

Olympus

,

which

is

based on existing

Pegasus

components.

but

employing

an

84

mm

Garrett unit

as

compressor

wheel.

The

turbine

wheel

was

originally

that

of

the

Pegasus,

but

a

larger

diameter

unit

is

now

used

.

In

this

configuGltion

the

AMT

Olympus

produces

230

Newtons of thrust

,

which

is

well

outside

the

spec

trum

of

nurmal

modd

applications

. Hardly

any model

jet

aircraft

are designed to handle

such

levels

of

power

. As a

result

it

only forms

a

suitahle

power

plant for

the

highly

experienced

and

very safety

-

conscious modeller

who

wishes to

build

and

tly really

extraordinarily

large

models.

Like

the

Pt gasus.

the

Olympus turbine

is

also

controlled by

a

sophisticated

system

of

electronics

.

The

mass

of

the

engine

is

2,400

g.

Externally

it is virtually

identical

to

its

smaller

brother

,

although

the

diameter

is a little

larger

at

130

mm

.

The

thermodynamic

data

produced

hy

the

engint

almost

approach those

of

gcnuine drone

engines

:

the

pressure

ratio

reaches

a

value

of

4,

tht

exhaust

gas

temperature

65

C

At

full

throttle

,

which

is

no

le::ss

than

108

,

000 rpm

,

the

Olympus

consumes

SOO

ml

of

kerosene

per

minute

.

Howt ver

,

the

latest

development

from

AMT is

more signifkant

,

a~

it

is a

smaller

turbine

:

the Mercury

.

Here

again

,

the

design

of

the engine

is

baskally the same

as

that

of

the

Pegasus,

but

in

terms

of

size

and thrust

it is a

good match

for most

current

model

jet

aircraft.

One

notable::

attribute

is

the

turhine

's

modest external diame



ter

,

which

is a

deliherate

design feature

.

The

case

diame

ter

is

only 100

mm,

and the

lengtb

JUSt

225

mm

.

These

small

dimensions are

only possihle

hecause

the engine

is

based

on

a

very

small

rotor

.

Nevertheless

,

the

turbine produces an

impressive

thrust

of

88

Newtons

,

and the

secret

to

its

high

output

is

the

high rotational

speeds

at

which

it runs:

the

full

throttle

speed

is

L

50

,

000

rpm. The

axial

turhine wheel

is

another

precision casting

in

Inconel

713.

Tht'

Mercury

achieves

a

pressure

ratio

of

2 8

at an

exhaust

gas

tempt'rature

of

650

°C,

and

fuel

con

sumption

is

very low

at

around

360

ml

per

minute

.

Externally

the

smaller

engine

is

very

similar to its

two

larger

brothers.

In

the meantime

the good

team

of

Rennie

and

Han has unfortunately split

up

and

two

hranche~

developnl. They

are

AMT

Netherlands

and

AMT

USA

.

Both

companit's are

legally

independent

,

but

now

sell

similar

turbines

.

1.3

The

K

66

In

recent

years Schreckling

has

abandoned

his original design.

The

latest

turbine that

is

linked to his

name

is

the

K 1

66. This

is a

high-performance model

jet

engine

that has

become

extremely

well

known

since

its

introduction

.

The name

is

derived

from

the

initials

of

the

first

names

of

the motor

's

manufacturers

.

Kurt Schreckling

and Jesus

Artes,

who

collaborated

on

the

design

of

the

new

engine

.

The

KJ

66

is

externally

similar to

the

original

FD

3/6-1

which was

designed by

Kurt Schreckling

,

but

that

is all

the two

turbines

have

in

common

.

Only

the

outer

hous

-

37


KJ

66

£l ld

Microturbille (left).

ing

of

the engine was

retainnl

for

the

n

ew

design

.

t

is

the

case

of

a small gas

container

which

can he

hought

as

a

camping

accessory.

The

other

internal

parts have

heen

entirely

redesigned

,

and

in

general

layout

they corre

spond to the

Micro-Turhine

described

in

these

building instmctions

.

The compressor

is a

proven turhocharger

whed

with

a

diameter

of 66

mm

.

This

component

is

mm:h

more

effi

cient th

an

the wooden

type

previously us

ed.

The

com

prt:ssor diffuser

takes

the

fonn

of

a

machined

aluminium part

.

who~

vanes take

the

form

of

fat

wedges

.

The

axial

turhine

wheel

is a

precision-made

fine

cast item

with

23

vanes

that can tolerate

extremely

high rotational

speeds

.

The

wheel

is

cast in

Spain in

Incond

713

. It

has

been

a

co-operation

hetween

Jesus

, Kurt

and

me

to enable

the

whed

to

fit

the

KJ

and

the

Micro

-T

urhine

as

well

.

t

is

now

also

used

in

other

engines

of

the

same

size.

The

combustion

chamher

employs the

now

proven

stick

principle

.

The

actual

comhustion

c

hamh

er

is

very

compact

,

so that

a s

hort

shaft

can

he

used

.

The

shaft

is

carried

in

two

hallr.lces

that are mounted

in

an

a

lumin

i-

um

shaft

tunnel

;

the

hearings are

pre\oaded

hy

means

of

a

spring

.

The

KJ

66

has

a

high

maximum

rotation,1I

speed

.

The

use

of

a very

strong

turbine wheel makes

it

possible to

mn

the

jet

engine

safely

at

very

high

peripheral speeds

.

At

115,000 rpm

the

KJ

66

produces

a

thrust

of

7 5

Newron

s,

and at

the

same

time

the

weight

of

the

engine

is very

low thanks

to

its

use

of

thin

sheet

materials

.

The

KJ

66

weighs

around

95U g,

depending on

version

,

and

A

KJ

66

built

i ,o afuselage.

32

The Germall

Behotec

has

i,,,enUllly

a

similar desig tu the

KJ

66

therefore

offers

an impressive

thnlst

:w

cight

ratio

.

With

these

figures

the

turhine

is

capable

of

providing plenty

of

thmst

for

virtually

any model

jet aircraft

.

Further

development~

around

tIlt::

KJ

66

include

an electronic control

unit.

Gaspar

Espiell, a

memher

of

the

team

centred on

Jesus

AnI s

,

has developed

an

eng

ine

governor

which

control~

this

(and

other)

model

turhines

VtTy

accurately

.

The electronic circuit monitor

s

hoth

exh u~t

gas

temperature and

compressor

pressure

.

and maximum

and

minimum pressures

G

ill

he entered

to

suit

the

specific

application

hy

means

of

a

handhdd

data

ter

minal.

The

KJ

66

has

not heen produced

as

a

complete

engine

in

the

heginning.

A

set

of

plans and

the

most

important

p rt~

including

the turhine

wheel have

heen

available.

Meanwhile almost

all

parts can

he

hought

from

different vendors

.

This

turbine

-desig

n

has

heen

copied

many

times

and

many

of

the current

commercial turbines

look

like

this turhine

in

many

points

.

1.4.

The

Artes-Turbines

Jesus

Artes

and his

Spanis

h

Team moved

on

in

devel



oping their

own

model

engines

.

The

origin

:

lI

design

of

the

KJ

66

was

improved and

new

co

mponent

s

were

added.

The

.IG-

IOO

Eagle, a

design

of

Jcsus

:ll1d

Gaspar

Espiell,

had

been the next

turhine

.

The

thrust had almos

t

doubled

and

150

Newtons

were

possible

with

this

machine

in

a

casing

of

only

108

mm

diameter.

This tremendous performance

is

possible

hy

some changes

,

The

cast

lurbi e wheel

riftl1eJF-series

Model ef

I ~il es


Jesus

Artes

with

one

of

hisJF-50

Bee

especially

by

uSing

larger

compressor and turbine wheels. The

new

combustion

chamber

has

12

sticks

and

the

com

pn

:

ssor wheel has 16 blades

with

aggressive

,

almost

upright ending

blades

. At full

throttle

it

reaches

a

rota

tional spet d

of

1:\2.

000

rpm

ami

a

pressure

ratio

of

3.4

.

The

st rit s

version

,

now

called

JF-

120 Super

Eagle is

produced

in

collaboration

with

Felipe Nieto

in

Mexico

.

The thrust

is slightly

lower

and

now

reaches

135

Newton

.

The

caSing

of the turbine

is

mad

e

of

aluminium.

Many

details

have

been improvnl.

Jt sus spc:nds

much

time in

development and

continues to

experiment

with

fit:W

thrust cones, bearings,

guide

vanes

and

othc::r

pans.

Apart from

the

JF-120

other

similar

engines have

been

devdopt d.

One engine

,

called JF

-1

U

Falcon,

has

a small

er

casing

uf

unly 98 mm

diameter hut

still

delivers

a

thrust

of

100

Newtons

. A

lot

of

time has

heen

invested

in

huilding

much smaller

engines

.

The

latest

result,

the ]F

-

50

Bee is

descrihed

at

the end

of

the

chapter.

Beside

the

engines,

Jesus

ddivers

a

lot

of

parts

.

Cast

turbine

wheds,

nozzle

guide vanes

and

shafts

are

available.

c

Jet

Cat

P120

IIIoullted

on

a

Kanaroo

trainer

KKK

turhocharger

compressor

is

used

,

combined with

a

cast

axial

turbine

.

The

combustion

chamber

is

equipped with

six sticks in

which

the

kerosene

is

pre-vaporised

.

Propane

gas

is

usnl

for

ignition

, fired

hy an

electric

glow-plug.

Initially

the two

ceramic hearings

were

luhricat

ed hy

a

separate

oil

feed

system,

and

the

engine

was

s

upplied

complete

with

an

oil

metering

pump

.

hut

since

then the

manufac



turers

have

changed to

a

maintenance-free

fuel

luhrica



tion

sys

tem

.

The front hearing

is

pre-loaded

in

the

forward direction

,

as

in

the

AMT

engines

. In

purdy

visual

terms

the

turbine

is very

neat and uncluttered

,

and

makes

an excellent

impression.

The output

power

is

quoted

at

S

Newtons

,

which

is a

very high

level,

and ample for

powering

models

with

a

tak

e-off

weight

of

12 kg

or

more

.

The

engine

weighs

just

over

1.3

kg

complete with

all

accessories

.

However,

the

real highlight

of

the

system

is

the

integral starter.

Once the

model'S fuel

tank

has

been

tilled

and

all

batteries

charged.

all

you have

to

do to

start

the

engine

is

operate

a

switch

on the

transmitter

the

electronic circuit

does the

rest. First

the

starter

is

switched on

;

this

engages

with the

comprc::ssor

hub

automatically

and

sets

the rotor

spin-

1.5

.

The

et

Cat

model turbine

TJ Pical

is the

electric

starter

ofthe et

Cat

This mudel

engine

is

an

interesting

unit

,

which incorporates

sev

eral

real

innovations

.

The

feature

that immedi



ately

catches

the

eye

is

the electric

starter

motor which

is

integrat



ed into the

turbine

's

inkt

opening

.

The

essential

control

compo

nents

are

hidden

away

discreetly

in

the

immedi

ate

vicinity

of the

inlet

hell

mouth.

Everything

is

conceakd.

and

the

engine

is

very

compact

overall

. In

tnms

of

tur



bine technology the

JetCat

P80 is

very

closely

has

ed

on

existing

home

-

huilt

engines:

the

proven

66

mm

diameter

Modelje

/ Engines

33


Jusllike

toys.

Parts

o

esus

Nano

Bee.

ning. At

the

samt timt:

the

gas

valve

opens and

tht: glowplug is

switched on

. A

thermo

-ele

ment

reports

ignition

in

the

combustion

chamber

by detecting

tht:

rise

in exhaust

gas

tt:mperature

.

The electronic circuit responds by start

ing

up the

fuel

pump

,

and

tht: t:ngine

runs

up

to speed.

The

electric

startt r

switches

itself

off

,

and

th

e

gas

flow

required

for ignition

is

cut

off

auwmatically

.

From

this

point

on the

turbint: is rt:gulatt:d

using

the

functions

now

common

to

most

modt:rn engines.

Maximum

rotational

speed and

t:xhaust gas tt:mpt:raturt:

are

automatically

limitt:d. Tht:

J<::tCat

model

tumine

has

.drt:ady provt d itself in

many

model

aircraft: it is a vt:ry efficit:nt

and

lightweight

power

plant

, its

compact

t:xternal dimt:nsions allow

the

t:ngine

to

bt

fittt:d t:asily

into most

model

jet aircraft.

The

set

includes compreht:nsivt: instructions

and

mOllnting

materials. Tht jt t

Cat

has

been the

first

model

turbine

that

has

been

distributt:d in

regular

model shops by Graupner

.

This

fact

must not imply

that

this

power

plant

is somt:

thing for

a beginnt:r.

You

also

mu~t

be

an

expt:rit:nct:d

modellt:r

to operate

tht:

system

correctly

,

but

,

this

pre



condition

fulfilled

and

the

system

corrt:ctly installed the

model

is

simply

carrit:d

to

tht:

take

-

off strip

,

where

The

JF-50

sectioned.

the

small

engine

is

compact

and

stable.

the

entirt:

starting

proct:dure

can be

carrit:d

out

with

t:ase

and

convt:nienct: from

tilt:

transmittt:r.

Also

the

original

JetCat P80

got

bigger

brothers

. A

more powerful

version

P120

,

later

a

P160

and

evt:n

P200

with 200 Newtons continuous thrust

is availahle

now

.

All

engines look

alike

and

tht:y all

carry

the

characteristic

electric

startt:r

at

thdr

front

.

1.6.

The

smallest

engines

Dt:spite

the

trem

e

ndous

inflation

of

thrust

figurt:s

in

recent

years

,

much

s

maller

engines

havt:

ht:en

devel

oped.

Fifty

or

sixty

Nt:wtons

of thrust

is

more than enough

to

propel

small

airframt:s

.

New turbochargt:r

developments

from

tht:

car

industry

also

help to

enablt:

new

dimensions

in small gas

turbines

.

The car

industry

produces

smaller and smaller cars

with turbocharged

t ngint:s.

These turbochargers are

so

small.

that they

st:em

to

bt:

almost

toys

.

The

smallest

compressor

wheels have

diame.ters

of

only

35

mm

.

The

blades

are

cast

with

a

thicknt:ss

of

just 0.4

mm

.

You

could

merely

cnlsh them with your

fingers

.

Generally

the number

of

blades

are

only

H

or

10

and they are

greatly retro-curved.

The

effi

ciency

of

these

wheels

is

almost as high as

that

of

their

Relation

betU eell

rotatio,uII

speed

tl1ld

compressor

diameter.

bigger

brothers

.

Wheels

of

50

mm reach almost

80

%.

The

availability

of

these parts

makes

vt:ry

small

and

powerful

engines

possible

.

rpm 240 000 Rotational

speed at

400 metres

I

sec blade

tip

speed 220 000

t---------- .....----=-----.,

200 000

I i : : :: =~

180 000

-----r::.=-~:_==__

-....

160 000

+------1

140 000 120 000 100 000 84 80 76 72 68

6

60 56 52 48 44 40 36 32

Turbine wheel

diameter

[mm]

34

The number

of

rt:vo

lutions reaches new

dimensions

as

well.

Up

to

IBO

,

OOO

rpm are

nec

essary

.

This

means no

less

then

3,

000

revolu



tions

per

second

.

f

perfectly balanced

,

you lost:

tht:

ft:t:l i

ng for

thest:

rotational

spet:ds. At

full

throttle

you

just

hear

a

powerful roaring

and

the rpm

just

h

eco

mes

a

numb

er

on the

digital

display. Tht:

shafts

are

fittt:d

with

hybrid

bt:arings

without

cagt:s. Tht:y

are

gent:ralIy

luhricated

with

fuel.

Modcl d

Enp,ines


The

Bee

on the test

bench.

You don't

realise

the

extreme

rotational speed.

As

with

the

maximum

revolutions

,

idle

speed

also

increases

. It is typically

around

SO OOO

rpm

for

the

small

est

engines

.

The

small

electric starters have

to spin

up

extremely

high

to get

the

engine

to

run

safely. A typical

example

for

a

very

small

engine

is

Jesus

' JF

SO

lice

.

The

overall

design

is

similar

to

that

of

its

larger brothers

.

The

outer

diameter has

been reduu:d

to

only

RO

mm

,

the

length

is 173

mm

.

The

JF-50 Bee

reaches

full

throttk

at

HIO

,

OOO

rpm and

a

thrust

of 60

Newtons

.

If

you hold this

machine

in

your hands you

realise

that

it

is really

only

as

big

as a

coffee-cup

,

but

at

the

test

bench

it

certainly

earns high

respect

n

:

ause

of

the

really

high

performance

.

The

Bee

has

an

electri

'

starter and

is

entire

ly

digitally

controlled

.

The

weight

is

ROO

g.

Jesus has

already

developed an even

much

smaller

engine

.

This

Nano

Bee is already

working

but

is.

at

time

of

writing,

still

in

an experimental stage

.

The

Nano

Bee

has

a

wheel

diameter

of

only

35

mm

.

The

external diameter

is

only

S8

mm

. It fits

into

a

beverage can.

Another

small

nlrbine

The

MW

5

and

its smaller

brother the

MW

44

dimensions

the thrust

reaches

S4

Newton

at

about

160

,

000

rpm

.

later

developments

led

to

an

MW54 MK3

with an augmented thrust

of

64

Newtons.

With this

nor



mal sized

models

can

be flown

without

any

problems

.

The construction

is

also ideal for

models

with

two

or

three

engines

. Also

the

fuel

consumption

is relatively

low

.

The

construction

of

the

combustion

chamber

is

worth

mentioning

.

Especially

in small

engines

the complete

comhustion

of

the

fud

is a

serious problem

.

The

combus

tor

of

the

MW

54

has

a

length

of

only

47

mm

.

Within

this

distance

combustion and

mixing

of

secondary

air must

take

place

.

John and

Mike

are

using

the

proven

sticks

,

but

here they

are

formed

like

an

'S'

and

end

at

the inner

diam



der

of

the

combustion chamher.

Additionally

small

noz

zles

lead

air

into

the chamber

.

That

the concept works

is

proven

by

the low exhaust

gas

temperature

of

370°C

without the exhaust

nozzle

.

With

the thrust

nozzle

mounted

about 575

C is

reached

. Mike

and

John

have

also

produced

an

even smaller

ver

sion.

The

MW

44

is a fully

developed

series

engine with

a

wheel diameter

of

only

- 1

.:1

mm

. Its

potential

is

about

~

has

been developed

in

England,

John

G.

Wright

and

Mike

Murphy

have

designed

the

MW

54,

a small

engine

based

on

a

turbocharger compressor.

The

name

is

also

derived

from

the

names

of

the

builders

and

the

diameter of the

com



pressor

.

The engine

uses

a

54 mm

Garret com

pressor

wheeL

The

tur



bine wheel

is

exactly

one

millimetre larger

.

It

is, as well as

the

NGV, a

cast

part

made

of

the

heat resistant

material

Inconel

713.

The MlV

built

i to

a

trailler.

With

the

hlllld close

to

t

you

Cllll

imagille

the

extremely

smail

size.

The

MW

S4 is

very

small

and

light. Its

outer

diameftT

is

only

87

mm

and

the

length

is

about 150 mm

.

The

engine

weighs

just

650

g

and

although

of

such

small

Model Jet

l

P i

le

35


Tbe

MW

5

in

turboprop

cOIifiguratioll

drilling

a

big

propeller

Newtons

and the weight

is

only 470

g.

The

rotor

spins

LIp

to

an amazing

190.000

rpm

.

The

MW

4-1

and

MW

'54

are

sold

through

WREN

Turbines

Ltd. Parts

and

complete

kits

focthe

MW'5

4

are

also available.

1.7.

Turboprop

and

shaft power engines

Apart from dire::ct jet.

other

means can

also

be

used

to

propel

airframes

.

The::

gas

jet

of

the engine

dclivers

enough energy

[()

produce

plenty

of

shaft

power

.

The

most

popular

way

is

to

use::

the exhau

st

gas

jet

to

drive

a

secondar

y

turbine stage

.

This

de::sign

has

important

advan

tages.

The

s

econd turbine

stage acts

as a

clutch

.

The

pro

peller

can even

be

held

stopped

,

while

the

c

ore

engine

is

spooling up

.

The::

se::coml

rurbine stage

has

also

got

much

lower

rotational s

peeds

.

Constmcting

suita

ble gearboxes

is

by

far

easier

then

to couple the

gears

directly to

the

core

engine

's

main shaft.

The

engint: s

C\J1

be

used to

drive

a

propeller

turboprop)

or

to

drivt:

the rotor

of

a

helicopter

shaft

power

engine)

.

Very

small

turbines

;Ire

especially interesting

for

turbo

prop

applications

.

Their

power

is

generally

sufficient for

most

applkations

and

the

fuel

consumption

is

low.

Building a

shaft

power

engine

,

based

on

an

AMT

Olympus

could

theoretically

deliver

about

50

kW

and

therefore::

power

a small

car

-

too much

for any model

application

.

One popular constmction

is

base::d

on

the

MW

'54

core

e::ngine.

This

small

turbine

is

used

as

core

gas

generator

for

the turboprop

assembly

.

With

a

much

bigger

second

nlrbine

whe::c1

insu

:

ad

of

the

thmst

nozzle

,

up to

5 kW

shaft

power

are reached

.

lllis

assembly

powered

a

model

helicopter

reliably

already

in

1999

. In

this

shaft

power

version.

the

turbine

is

mounted

against

flight

direction

.

The

hot exhaust

gases

stream

to

the

front,

where the

power

turbine

is

located

. A

big

propeller

is

then

driven

via a

gearbox

.

The

power

can

get

so

high

,

that

some

pro-pellers

can break

at

full

throttle.

The engine

is available

from

WREN

ready built

as a kit.

Some

turboprops

have in

the

meantime

become com

mercially available,

but

they can

also

be

huilt

from

a

plan. Here

you can add

a

second turbine

stage

to

an

existing

gas

turbine

or

build

a

specially

designed construction

.

Certainly

the::

eff()rt is hight::r

than if you only

try

to

build

a

normal

jet

engine

.

Kurt Schreckling

did

a

lot

of

develop-

ment

in

this

field.

Hb

building

instructions are

also avail

able in

a

Traplet Publications book.

The

title

is:

The

Model

Turbo·Prop

Engine

.

Homellllilt

turboprop

ill

twill

sbaft

cOllfiguratioll

based on

t

very

small core

engille

36

Mo

de/Jet

Ellgilles


hapter

The

omponent

Parts

o

a Model et

Engine

T

his

section

presents the

most important

compo



nents

of

a

model

jet engine

-

the

compressor

,

combustion

chamber

and

turbine

-

one

by

one

.

etail~

are provided

on

the

principles and method

of

working

of

the parts

,

and

also

the

methods

of

calculat

ing

the data

for designing

these

essential

components. The

basic

theory required

is

explained

gradually

and

illustrated

with

the

help

of

examples

.

The

underlying

formulae relating

to each

part are

stated

at

the

beginning

of

each section and discussed

briefly

where

necessary

.

Only

a small

number

of

formulae

are

required

overall

to

calculate

the

essential data

for a

jet

engine

,

and you

will

also find

that everything

turns

up

again

when we

discuss

the

turbine

. I

would

like

to point

out

to

you

here

that

,

although

the theory presented

in this

book can

certainly

be used

for

the

calculations

relating

to

a

model jet

engine

,

the

mathematics has

naturally

been

simplified

somewhat

.

Don t be concerned

-

the complete

calculations

concern



ing

all

the

flow

processes

inside

a

model jet

engine would

fill

several

volumes

,

if

it

were

possible

at

all. All

this

means

is

that

there

is

plenty

of

scope

for

experimental

work

on

the

completed engine

,

using

the modeller

s favourite

method

uf

determining

the

best

possible design and construction

of

the

components

.

We

shall

start

with the compressor

,

as

all

the

other

components

are designed

and adjusted

to suit this part. The reason

for

this

sequence

of

operations

is

that

in

this area

the

modeller can

use

a

ready

-

made compressor wheel

as

used

in tur

bochargers.

s

a

result

,

selecting

a

particular

compressor wheel

etermine

the

overall

characteristics

of

the

engine

at a

stroke

.

Specialfeatures

q f

small

gas

turbines

Model

jet

engines are

not

simply

reduced-scale models

of

full-size

engines

.

The

basic

method

of

working

is

the

same

,

but there

are special considerations

which demand

a

different

and

usually

simpler

design.

Any

comparison between

a real aircraft

engine and

a

model

jet

engine

initially

throws up

few similarities

.

Most

modern

gas tur

bines include

features

such

as

multi

-

stage

compressors

and turbines

,

blade cooling

,

complex

regulatory

and

con

trol

machinery

and

so

on.

and these are

simply

not

pre

sent

in

the

model

version.

In

our

case everything

depends on

simplicity

and

functionality

.

Combustion

The combustion

chamber

is

one

of

the

most

critical

JIodelJet llgines

components

of

the engine

.

Although

it

has

no

moving

parts and

its

only task

is

to

heat

air

by

means

of

the combustion

of

fuel.

there

are

considerable problems

involved

in optimising

the

design

.

The

reason for

these

difficulties

is

the

extremely

short

period

which

the

air

spends

in

the

combustion

chamber

.

On

average this

is

only

about

1/500

of

a

second

.

In

this

period

the

fuel

and

air have

to

be

mixed

.

burned. and secondary

air

added

to

the

mixture

. In

this

respect

chemistry presents the modeller

with serious

problems

.

In

fact

the

expansion

speed

of

the

flame

front

is

severely limited

.

t

is

therefore

essential

to

slow

down the

flow

inside

the

combustion

chamber to

a

huge

extent

,

so that

the

gas

speed

in

the combustion area

(known

as

the

primary

zone)

is

very

low

. At

high

rotation

al

speeds

gas

flow

speeds

up

markedly

,

and

the

efficiency

of

combustion

falls

otf

quickly

,

i.e

.

fuel leaves

the engine unburned

.

This

can

reach

the

extent that

unburned

fuel

forms

a

plume

of

white

smoke

as

it

leaves

the exhaust

. At its

worst

the

flame

is

simply

blown

out

.

However

,

the

rate

of

flow

in the combustion chamber can

only

be

slowed

down

if

its cross-sectional

area

is

correspondingly

large. Liquid

fuels

present

a

particular problem

here

.

as

combustion

cannot

take place

until

a

combustible

mix



ture

is

formed

-a

complex proce

ss in itself.

The length

of

the combustion

chamber

plays

an

important

role

here

.

f

the

chamber

is

too short

only

a

proportion

of

the

fuel

burns

in

the

combustion

chamber

.

and

the

flames

then

continue into

the

turbine

stage

.

Even

if

the engine runs at

all

in such

a

state

,

this

problem

will always

result

in

ineffi

cient

exploitation

of

fuel.

Stream

s

of

hot

ga

s, still

burning

,

then produce

local

overheating

in

the

turbine

-

what

are

known

as

hot

s

pot

s.

Poor

combu

s

tion

bo

has an

unfavourable

effect

on the

efficiency

of the

turbine

.

Exhaust

temperatures

rise

to

excessive

levels

although

the compressor

and

turbine

stages may

actually

be work



ing

efficiently

.

Viewed

overall

,

it

is

clear that

an efficient

combustion

chamber

is a

fundamentally essential feature

of

any

practical

model

jet

engine

.

Many

industrial

miniature

gas

turbines

side-step

the

problem

of

miniatur



ising

the

combustion

chamber

.

This

is

done

by

arrang



ing

a

separate

,

large-volume

combustion chamber

adjacent

to

the

rotor.

A

central

fuel

injection

vapori

s

er

jet in

the

middle

of

the

flame

pipe

is

then

all

that

is

required

.

Unfortunately this solution

is

very

bulky

,

and cannot be

used in

a

jet

engine designed

to

propel

model

aircraft.

37


Rotor

design

Turhine

e

ngin

es only

produce

high

power

at

very high

peripheral

spee

ds

.

This

applies

w

full

-

size

jet

engines

and

also

to

sma

ll

ones

,

i.e

.

model jet

e

ngines

. This inevitahly m

eans


speeds

to

take

inro

account the

~maller

whcds. Our

sma

ll

engines

of

ten run

at

speeds

in

excess

of

IOO

,

) ) )

rpm

,

depending

on the diameter

of

the rotor

. T

hese


speed~

make

particular demands

on the

modeller

,

as

they require

thaI

the rotor

system

be made to

extremely

high

levels

of

precision

.

Even

very

s

light

imhalance

results

in s

ubstantial

centrifugal forces

,

which

in

turn

lead

to

a

slight elastic

deformation

bending) of

the

shaf

t.

The

distortion

in

turn increases

the

imhalance

,

and

F

Diagram

o

dJ lamic

belldi1lg

~i

the

ellgille's

sbaft

as

it approaches the

critical

rotati01lal

speed

.

Rotor

o

a

model

jet

ellg;lle

(Milli

-

Turbille).

38

the

centrifugal forc

es

rise

further.

The

only force

which

counters

this

effect

is

the

shaft

's

natural

rt

:

silience

.

As

long as

thb

is

greater than th

e

centrifugal force

,

the

be

nd



ing

stays

within

relativc\y

narrow

limits.

However

, if rota·

tional

spe

ed

continues

0

rise

we

reach

a

point

where the

rotational

frequency

of

the

rotor

is

the

sa

me

as

the

reso

nant frequency

. At

this point

resonance

sets

in

and

any minute imbalance

cause~

the rotor

to

bend

and

oscillate.

The

deformation

in

the

shaft

increases uncontrollahly

and

the

shaft

is

destroyed

.

However

,

before

this

happens

.

ix

.

well

below the

critical rotational

speed

,

the

shaft may

he

so

seriously

distorted that

it is

permanently bent

, a

nd

the

hend

may

even

be

visihle

to the

naked eye

. If

this

occurs

in

a

model

jet

engine

the

result

is

sudden

,

intens

e vihra

tion

at

full

throttle

. As

the engine

runs

down

the

damage

will

be

ohvious

by the compressor

shaft running

out

of

true

.

When

you are

running

the

gas

turbine

it is

therefore

essential

to ensure that the

rotational

speed

of

the

shaft:

remains

significantly

below

the

critical

speed.

The

cr

itical

rotational

frequency

varies

according

to the

shaft materi

a

l

the

mass

and

g

eo

metry

of the

rotor and

the

arrange

ment

of

the

hearing

s. As a

basic rule

we

ill

state that

,

the

longer the

shaft,

the

lower the

maximum permi

ssible rotational

speed

. At

model

sizcs

,

for

example

,

lengthening

the

shaft by

a sin

gle

centimetre reduc

es the

rotational

speed strength

by

up

to about

lO

.

For

the

same reason

there

are

limits

on the

length

of

the comhustion

chamber

,

as it

has

to

fit

between the compressor and

the

turhine

.

The

actual

rotor

hearings take

the

form

of

ballraces

and

,

curiollsly

enough

,

they

generally

present

no

prob

lems

.

The

only essential stricture

here

is

that

the

hearings must

he

lubricated and

cooled

adequately

.

Provided

that

this

is

the

case

.

then

you can

safely

exceed

the

nominal

maximum

speed

stated

by

the

bearing

manufacturer

by up

to three

times. Heat-resistant

steels

such

as

basic

stainless

steel

are extraordinarily

poor.

conductors

of

heat

.

and

it is

only

this

circumstance which

enables us

to keep

tur

bine bearings at

a

low temperature

.

Although

the

temperature

of the

turhine

blades

reaches more

than

0

C

the

hearings

,

located only

a

few

centimetres

away,

stay

rela

tively

cool.

However

,

thi:.

is

only

true

if

the correct

amount

of

air

is

ducted

to

the

hearings

for

cooling

.

f

very high

rotational

speeds are required

we

recommend that the

bearings

be

pre-loaded

usually

to

a

minimum

value.

Specialist

literature from

bearing manufacturers

should

be

~ idied

on

this

point

.

Gap losses

There must

be

a

slight

gap

between the compressor

a

nd turbin

e

wheels and their housing

to

provide..'

clear



ance

for

the

moving

parts. Naturally

it is

essential

to keep

this

escape route

as small

as

possible

,

otherwise

gas

will

now past

the

blades instead

of

through them

.

The width

of the

gap

is

prim

ar

ily

dictated

by

the

potential

thennal

loading.

When

the

en

gine

is

started

up

from

cold the

tur

bine blad

es

almost instantaneously

reach the same tem



perature

as

the

gas

.

but the

surrounding

housing takes

a little

time

to warm up

.

The

clearance must

therefor

e

he great

enough to

avoid

the

turbine blad

es

touching

the

housing

as

they

expand more

qUickly.

The

reverse case must

also

be

considered:

when the

engine stops

running

the hou

si

ng cools

quickly

,

and could

foul

the

spinning rotor

blades

which

are

still

hot. In

industrial

gas turbines the

gap

is 2

to

3

thousands

:Hode/./et Ellgines

-


of

the rotor

diameter

.

For

example

,

the turbine

clearance

of

the

Turbomeca

Anouste

.

with

t

rotor

di;tmeter

of

220

mm

, is

only 0.4 mm.

This

narrow

gap

dkl

occasionally cause

the

engine

to

stop

when

the

housing

touched

the

bl;t(ks

and

jammed

the rotor

. In practical

terms such

tight clearances are

not

feasihle

for model

jet

engines

.

Extreme accuracy

in

the

workshop

might

make

this

possible

,

hut

in

any

case uneven

temper-ature

disuihmion

in

the exhaust

gas

is virtually unavoidahle,

and

this

would

tend

to cause heat

distortion

in the

turhine shrouding system

.

Fouling

of

the

turbine would then be

inevitable.

For

model

jet

engines

we

must

there-

fore

accept

a

gap

of

5

thousands

of

the

rotor diameter

and

learn

to

live

with

the

inevitahle losses

.

The

distance

between

the

rotor

hlades

and the

housing

of

a

model

jet

engine

will

typically

lie

in

the

rang

e 0

.3

-0.5

mm

.

depending

on the

nlmine

diameter.

These

values

are

easily

within

the scope

of

the amateur

.

However

,

any further widening

of

the gap

will

result

in a significant

drop

in

effi

ciency

.

With

a

gap

of

one

millimetre

the

engine

will

not

run

at

all.

~imil r

rules apply

to

the compressor

area

,

although

our

experience shows that

a small radial

com-

pressor

with

a

gap

of

0.4

mm

is still

quite

efficient.

Gap

losses

can he

avoided

almost

completely hy using what

are

known

as

enclosed rotor

wheels

.

These

wheels

fea

tur

e a

plate

which

covers

the compressor

hlades

to form

enclosed ducts

.

The disadvantage

is

the

slightly

lower

rotational

speed strength

of

these wheels

.

Conclusions

relating

to

the

model jet engine

In designing

a

model jet

engine

the

aim

of

the

exercise

is

to

exploit the

hasie

principles

of

the gas

turbine

.

as

already

descrihed

,

using

the

simplest

possible

means

.

This straightforward

aim

presents plenty

of

prohlems in

itself

,

which

means that the modeller can

certainly

spare

himself any

thoughts

of

technical refinement

.

t

is

safe

to assume

that

afterhurners

,

multi

-

shaft

rotor

systems

;tnd

hy

-

pass

engines

will

not

find many

advocates

in

the

model arena

.

The ohvious

choice

for

the

model jet

engine

s

compressor

is

the

radial

typ

e.

With

a

single

stage

this

sort

of

wheel

c;tn

provid

e

an

acceptable pressure

ratio

.

The

axial

compressor

gener;tlly

used in

full-size

jet engines unfortunately

prcSt::nts a

multitude

of

prohlems at

model scale

.

Calcu

l

ations

show

th;tt

t

gas

tumine could

function

with

t

single-stage axial

compressor

,

hm

in prac

tice

such an engine would

only

d

eve

lop

as

much

thrust

as a

good quality

heat

gun

.

The low pressure

ratio

would give

a

v ry

low

efflux

speed

.

and

fuel

consumption

would he

unacceptahly

high.

To

oht;tin a

pressure

similar

to that

of

a

single

stage

radial

compressor

an

axial

compressor would require

at

least

three

stages

,

and

the

construction

of

a

multi

-

stage compressor

is enormOUSly

complicated

.

The stator

h(ms

ing

would

have

to

he

made

in

two

halves

with

an exactly circular internal

cross-St::ction.

It

would no longer

he

pos-

sible

to support the rotor on

only

two

bearings

,

as

this

would

dictate

a

very low critical rotation;tl

speed

.

18.0

Gap

loss

of

a lu,.bi,1e stage, acco,.ding In

Dieyzel (blade height 10

mm)

16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0

'

'

s

9-.8.0

(5

6.0

4.

0

2.0 0.0 0.1

0 2

0.3

0 4

0.5

Gap

width

(m ,) Gap

losses

at the

turbine stage

of

a

model

t

(mgine.

Model Jet Engines

0 6

0.7

O B

0 9

39


MODEL JET ENGINES COMP RED WITH INDUSTRI L IRCR FT ENGINES

Engine

Firm/Constmctor

First Run FD3

Schreckling 1990

Micro-Turbine

T 2,)OP Macboce

Turbomeca

1')')2

CF6

-

MC

Kamps

JPX GE, MTlJ, SNECMA

1983 993 1995

Thmst

(Newtons)

30 50

Mass (Kg)

0.75

1 14

Pressun

: Ratio

5

2

Turbine

Intake

temperature

(0

C)

ca

.

700

ca.650

Specific

Thmst

(N/kg)

40

44

Consumption (kg/min.)

0.

16

0.160

Specific

on~umption

(kg/N/h)

0.

32

0.2

Neverthele

ss,

in

theory

this type

of

compressor

might

have possible

applications

in

the

model scene.

Once

the

type

of

compressor has

been

selected.

the

layout

of

the

turbine stage

is

already fixed

to

some extent.

A single-stage

turbine

is

quite adequate

,

and

both

axial and

radial

turbines are

feasible. Single-

stage

compressors

and

turbines

take

up

little

space

,

hut

the same

does not

apply to

the

combustion chamber

,

and that

is

why

model

jet

engines

do

not

look

59

1.55

2.1')

ca.7

40

38

0.

177

O.

IS

Fouga

eM

170

Magister

3,

900

146

4.1 7

80

27

7 6

0.

117 Airbus

A

:

BO

Boeing

747

262,,)00

' i,066

32

1.2M

6 )

IS8

W36

at all like

their

full-size

cousins

from

the

outside.

In

fact

,

the

relative

proportions

are

more

or

less reversed.

In

a full-size

jet

engine the combustion

cham her

constitutes

a

short

section

between

compressor and

turbine,

but

it is

usually

the

l

argest

component

in

the

model version

.

There

are

further

differences

in

terms

of

specific

power

.

Model-size

compressors and turbines are

less

efficient

than

industrial aircraft

engines

.

f

the

engine

is

to

mn

at

all,

the turbine

must

extract

most

of

the

available

energy

180 (Itllet

temperature 20

°C efficietlcy 75 )

6u

140

h

120

'

1:

:

100

;:

;

S

80

;

c

' '

60

S

a

40

20

0

1

1,2

1,4

1,6

1,8

2

2,2

2 4

2.6 2.8

3

Pressure

ralio

Temperature rise in

tile

turbine compressor

40

;

Hodeljel

llgines


from

the

exhaust

flow

.

As

a

result only

a relatively

small

rt:sidut:

of

energy

is left

to produce

thrust. This

fact

.

cou

pled with

the low

pressure

ratios

which

can be

achieved

in

model

jet

engines

,

has

the

effect that only

:\

to

H

per

cent

of

the

energy

contained

in

the

fuel

is

turned

into

thmst.

Nevertheless

,

since these

small

engines

are

low

in

mass

tht:y

achieve

thrust:weight

ratios

comparable

to

those

of

their

full-size

friends

.

The drawback

is fuel

con



sumption:

the

model pilot

who

wishes

to

use this

type

of

engine

in a

model

must

allow for

the

installation

of

a

very

largt: fuel

tank

.

The

compressor

Tht:

purpose

of

the compressor

is

to compress the

air drawn

into

the

engine.

The

hasic

principle

of

all

compressors

is

the

same

: it

converts

kinetic

energy

into

pressure

energy

.

To

achieve this

the

air

drawn into

the

compressor

is first

accelerated

to

high

speed

and

then

dt:cdt:ratt:d

; this

action converts

the

speed

of

the

gas

into pressure. [f

a radial

compressor

is

used

,

centrifugal force provides

a

furthn

im

:reast:

in

air

pressure. During this

process

the

temperature

of

the

medium

rist:s

at

tht:

same time

as

the

gas

prt:ssure

rises.

This

efkct

will

he

familiar

t

anybody

who

has

pumped up

a

tyre

with

an ordinary hand-operat



ed

pump.

The

work

dont:

is

stored

in

the

gas

It:aving

the

com

pressor. In

technical

terms

this

is

an

increase

in

the

enthalpy

(

heat content

of

a

substance

pt:r unit

mass

)

of

the

air

. [n

theory

tht: rist:

in

enthalpy corresponds

to

the

specific

powt:r

of

the

compn

:

ssor.

although

in

practice

wt:

have

to

make

allowanct: for

the

inevitahlt:

losses

.

OlKh

~h

=

T

x

c

p

(1t

I

~h

Enthalpy

increase Olkg)

T Inlet tt:mpt:raturt: in

°

Kelvin c

p

Specific

thermal capacity

of

air

,

lOOO

(J/kg/K)

1t

Pressure ratio

of

the compressor

, i.e. final

pressure/inlet pressure The

exponent

in

the

formula

(0

.

286)

is

derived from

the

polytropic coefficient

n. In

the case

of

an

uncooled

com

comprt:ssor. In

the

model

sphere

it varies

within the

range 0.65

to

0.78.

The

lown

the

coefficient.

tht:

more

energy

is

converted

uselessly

into heat

,

and

the greater

the temperaturt:

increase

~

in

the compressor

.

One

of

the

most important equations

used

in

calculating

the compressor

-

and

in

fact

the

entire engine

-is

what

is

known

as

the continuity equation

.

It

can

be used

virtually

everywhere

and fortunately

it

is

extremely

simple.

It

states

that

the

volumt:

of

gas

which

flows

in

one

second through

a

known

cross-sectional

area

A

at

a

known

speed

c is

the

product

of

A

and

c. Logically

the volume which

flows

doubles

if

we

double

the

cross

-

sectional area

or

the

speed. One

value

which

is

always

of

interest

is

the

throughput,

i.e

.

the

mass

of

gas

which

flows

per

second

,

and to

calculate this

we

multiply

the

volumetric flow

by

the

density

of

the

gas. ill m

c

A

P

This

gives

us the

classic

continuity equation

:

cxA

xp

Throughput

(kg/s)

Speed (m/s)

Flow cross-section

(m

2

(;as

density

in

the cro

ss

-section

(kg/m

\

)

When

using this

equation

it is

important

[0

keep

[

the

correct

units

of

measurement

.

We

can exploit

the

fact

that

the throughput in

a

model

jet

engine

is virtually

con



stant at

all

points

.

We

can

ignure::

the

mass

of

the

fuel

supplied to

the

engine since

it

represents

only

about

1.7

of

the

air

throughput

.

We

can

now

find

the

flow

speed

for

any cross-section

provided that

we

know the

throughput

and the

gas state.

To

calculate gas density

we

only

nt:t:d

the pressure

and

temperature

of

the

gas.

p pieR

x

T)

p

Absolute

pressure

of

the

gas in

Pascal

(N/m

2)

l

bar

=

100

,

000

Pa)

Inlet

air

288K 15

°C) 1.013

bar

Compressed

air

377

K 98°C)

Combustion

gas

973 K 7OO°C)

1.92

bar

Exhaust gas

843

K 570°C) 1.013

bar

p

=

1.225

kglm3

Jh=O/if

/

kg

2

bar

p

=

1.88

kg

/

mJ

Jh=

67kJ

l

kg

p=

0.69

kg/m)

h

=

166

kj/kg

p

=

0.42

kg/m)

h

=

O/if

l

kg

c

=

3

m/s

1,080

kill/

h)

prt:ssor

(known

as adia



batic

compression)

n

=

1.4.

The

exponent

used

in

the

formula is

(n-l)/n

=

0.

28571

,

or

0.

286

when

rounded

up

.

This value

(or

its

rt:ciprocal

3.5)

crops

up

again,

and

again

in

all

thermal

cal

culations

.

The

input

power

which the compressor

requires

for

its

work can

be

calculated

as

follows

:

E

P=ill

x

01

is

the compressor

tnroughput

in

kg air

per

second

.

11

is

the

effiCiency

of

the

Model

Jet

EI1Rilles

--

Gas

states

in

a

model

et

engine.

41


Types

of

radial

compressor (top to

bottom): wheel with

radially

tipped

blades;

wheel with

slighl V

relro-curved

blades;

enclosed

wheel

with greatly

retro-curl ed

blades.

T

Absolute

gas

temperarure

in

0

Kelvin R

Gas

constant

for air

and

for

comhustion

products

produced

in

the

engine 287

U/kgIK])

p

Gas

density

in

kg m~

The

radial

compressor

For

a

model

jet

engine this type

of

compressor

a

ppears to

he

made

to

measure

.

The

radial

compressor

is

extremc::Iy

rubust

and

straightforward

in

construction.

Because

of

these

advantages

it is still

used

today

where

it

would

be

possible

t

replace

t

with

the

more

effective

axial

compressor.

The

radial

compressor can

he

huilt

in various configu

ratiuns

which

exhihit widely

varying

characteristics.

although

the

two

main categories

are those with

a

cover

plate

,

and those

withoUT.

The former type

features

a

plate

covering

the

hlades

,

designed

to avoid

gap

losses.

The

resultant

compressor

is

an

enclosed wheel

type

. A

sec

-

ond important

feature

is

the

curvature

of

the

hlades

.

whereby

the

crucial

point

is

the

angle

of

the

blades

at

the wheel exit

.

We have

£0

differemiate

between

wheels

with

radial

blades

and those with

retro-curved hlades

.

Practical

experiments

have

shown

that

all

these

wheel

forms

are

suitahle

for

model jet

engines.

Regardless

of

the

precise

type

of

radial

wheel

,

the

air

drawn

in

flows in

the

direction

of

the

rotational

axis.

Once

inside

the

whec::I

the

gas follows

the

hlade

ducts

and

is

pushed outwards

in

the

radial

direction

under the

influence

of

centrifugal force

. Finally

the

air

leaves

the

wheel

amI

flows at

high

speed into

the

adjacent compressor

diffuser system.

Here

the

gas

is

slowed

in

the

widening

ducts

and

the

residual

kinetic energy

is

converted

into pressure

.

The

overall

pressure

rise

in

the

stage

is dis-

trihuted

over

the

whed

and the

diffuser

syskm

.

The

reaction

level

r

of

the

compressor

stage

can he

defined

in

general

terms

as

follows: Y

Wheel

and

Y

Ia e

are

the

values for

the

work

which

is

done

on

the

air

in

the wheel

and

in

the

overall

stage

respectively

.

The

unit

of

measurement here

is

J/kg.

The

distribution

of the two components

is

determined

hy

the type

of

hlade form

used

in

the

wheel.

Radially

tipped

blades

supply

a

reaction

value

of

0.5.

With

suh-

stantial

retro-curvature

this value

is

much

higher

,

which means

that

most

of

the energy

conversion takes place

inside

the

wheel.

Compressor wheels

of9

mm

and

66

mm

diameter.

Theformer

is already

slightly

too

large

for

normal model

use.

The

increase

in pres

sure

in a radial

compres·

sor

varies

according

to

the

ddle tion

of the

gases

in

the

direction

of

the

peripheral

motion.

Peripheral

speed

is

not

a

constant

in

a

radial

com

pressor

,

and

this

is

the

crucial

advantage

of

this

type

of

unit

.

At

the

air

inlet

the

whed

diameter is

small

,

and

the

peri

pheral speed therefore

correspondingly

low. In

contrast

,

maximum

peripheral speed

is

reached

at

the wheel outlet.

The overall

deflection

is

therefore

considerabk

.

The

wurk

done can

be

calculated

as

:

42

Mode/Jet

Ellp ines


Y

th 2 x C

u

X Clu

UI

=

Peripheral

speed

at

the

wheel

inlet u

2

=

Peripheral

speed at th

e

wheel outlet

c

u

c

h,

=Gas speed

in

the peripheral

direction

al

the wheel

inlet

and outlet

For

Ollr

purposes

we

ill

simplify

the

formula

even

fur



ther.

[f

the compressor

consists

of

a

single

radial

stage

,

then the

gas

flows

into

the

compressor without

any

twisting

motion

.

This

means

that

the

airtlow

is

perpendicular

to

the

periphtTal

direction

at

the

wheel

inlet

. As a

result

the

inflow

speed

has

no

component in the

rotational

dire< tion.

The expression

u

l x C

lu

becomes

equal

to

zero

,

and

the

following

formula

applies

:

The net

result is

that

we

only

need

to

consider

the

flow

conditions

at

the

wheel outlet.

At

this

point

we

use

a

velocity diagram

to

clarif

y

matters

.

[n

a velOCity

diagram

the

individual flow

components

are

drawn

as

vectors

.

The vector arrow shows the

direction

of

flow

,

while the

length

of

the arrow shows the magnitude

of

the

speed.

[n

the

resultant

velOCity

diagram

you can use

trigonometry

to

ohtain

the

values

you want. This

gives

you

an

alterna

tive

method

of determining

all

the

vital

flow angle

s:

either

by

calcul:ltion

or

by

consulting

graphs.

All

the

speeds at

the

wheel

inlet

and outlet

are given

the

suffix

numbers

1

or

2 in

order

to differentiate

them

clearly.

We

will

consider

the

absolute

speed

of

the

gas

c,

the

relative

speed

wand

the

peripherdl

speed

u.

The

absolute

speed

is

the

gas

speed

at

a

particular

,

fixed point

of

observation

.

In

contrast

,

the

term

relative

speed

applies

to

those

components

which

relate

to

the

blades

which

are

in

motion

.

[f

we

could hitch

a

ride

on the

com

pressor

wheel

,

the measured

flow

would

be the

relative

low

conditions in

tbe

rotor

o

a

radial

compressor_

Model et

ngilles

component.

In

the wheel

we

obtain the absolute speed

by

vn

:

tor

addition

of

relative

and

peripheral

speed.

A fur

ther

important

speed component

is

what

is

known

as

the

radial

component

c

m.

The

radial

speed

is

the

component

of

the

absolute

speed

in

a

direction perpendicular

to the

peripheral direction

.

The

magnitude

of

c

m

determines the throughpul

of

th

e

compressor

.

The work done

is

determ

ined by

the

components

u

2

and

c

lu

'

f

we

assume

a

constant

rotational

speed

and

thus

a

given

peripheral speed

the

rise

in

pressure

varies

only

according to

c

2u

The

steeper

the

blade angle

~

the

larger

this

component

becomes. Wheels

with

radially

tipped

blades

-

[i2

=

90

° -

therefore

provide

the

highest

pressure

. In

this

special

case

c

lu

is

always

the

same

as

u

b

which

means

that the work

done

is:

For certain special applications

compressor wheels with

forward

curved

blades are

used

,

but

they

are

of

no

inter

est

to

us

here

.

The conclusion that wheels with

radially

tipped

blades are

the

best

solution

for

model

jet

engines because

of

th

ei

r

high

pr

essure

is

not

correct

.

The

velo

city

dhlgram

shows that

the

absolute

speed

c

2,

i.e.

the speed

at

which the

air

leaves

the wheel

,

is still

very

high

. A

large

proportion

of

the

pres <;ure

gain takes

place

in

the

diffuser system

of

the compressor

,

where the

residual

kinetic energy in

the

gas

is

reduc

ed. Unfortunately

the

compressor dif

f

user

system

inevitahly involves significant losses

at model scale

.

In contrast,

wheels with

retro-curved blades

convert

a

larger

proportion

of

the

energy

within the wheel

itself

, i.e.

the

reaction

level

is

greater than

0. ;.

The speed

at which

the

gases

flow

into

the

diffuser system

is slightly

lower because the curvature

of

the

blades

is

opposed

to

43


the


. In

our

experience

the

compressor

b

more

efficient overall

if

the

wheel

is

fitted with

retro-curved

hlade

s. In

practice

the pressure

ratios

which these compres

sors

achieve

is

not as high

as

the

theoretically

possihle

levels.

There are

two

reasons for this

:

when

air

is

tlowing through

the compre

ss

or

losses

occur which

reduce

the

work

performed

.

In addition

,

the

gas

does

not

follow

accurately

the path

dictated

hy the

hlades

.

The

deflection

in

the

air

in

the


is

lower than predict



ed

by

theoretical calculations

.

This effect

is

known

as

blade

slip.

f

we

wish to move

away from

the

theoretical

situation

and

find

out

exactly

how much

air

is

moved and

with

what

level

of

efficiency

,

we

have

to

take

into

account

the

reduced

performance

factor

f

and

the

inter

nal efficiency

Il

Determining

the

parameters

f

and

is

very

difficult,

and they are

usually

found experimentally

.

For this reason

a

different

method

is

used

to

calculate

the

basi<:

data for

a

model jet

engine

compressor

.

The

calculations relating

to

a

radial

compressor are

carried

out

using

non-dimensional

values.

These

allow us

to

establish

all

the important data

relatively simply

hy

observing

easily

measurable magnitudes.

The parameters which

define

the

characteristics

of

a

compressor

are

its

throughput and pressure

gain

.

For

compressor

pressure we

define

a

pre

s

sure value

ljJ

as

follows

:

The peripheral

component

c

2u

of

the

absolute

speed

is

not

included in

the

definition.

The compressor

's

pressure

value

remains

largely

constant over

a

broad

range

of

rota

tional

speeds

.

Provided

that

we

know

the

pressure

value

,

we can

determine

the work done

,

and

from

it

the

pressure

ratio

relative

to

the

peripheral

speed

u

2.

The peripheral

speed

in

tum

can

he

calculated

from

the

rotational speed.

For ordinary

day-

to

-

day

operation

of

a

model

jet

engine the

reverse

of

this

procedure

is

also

us

eful

:

instead

of

measuring rotational

speed

hy

some complex

method

, all

we do

is

measure

the

pressure

,

which can be done

using

simple

means

.

The

second non

-

dimensional

value

relates

to

the

throughput

of

the

radial

compressor

.

The

supply value

or

throughflow

value defines

the

radial

component

c

m

from

which

we can

calculate

the throughput

with reference

to the

peripheral

speed

uz.

For

our

purposes the

supply

value

I>

can

he

defined

as

follows

: Definitions

of

the

supply

value vary

across

the

specialist literature

;

it

may

he

defined

as

the

gas

flow

at

the

inlet

or

outlet

of

the

wheel. In this

hook

we

relate it

deliher

ately

to

the compressor wheel outlet.

We

should

also note that

the

radial

speed

at

the

wheel outlet

is

not

dis

tributed evenly

,

and

hence

c

m

should

be considered

as an

average

speed

.

The throughput

achieved

by

the com



pre

s

sor can

he

found from

the

continuity equation

as

follows:

44

A is

the

cross-sectional

area

of

the compressor

outlet.

t

is

calculated from

the

xpr s~ion

d

2

x

:n:

x

b

2.

where

d2 is

the wheel diameter and

b 2

the

hlade height at

the

outlet.

p is

the

density

of

the

air immediately

it leaves

the wheel.

A

sample calculation for

the

supply

value

is included

in

the

section

on

ditIusers.

Typical

calculation for

a

radial

compressor

From

all

this

theory

it

is

possihle

to

derive

a

few

sim



ple

formulae

which

are

genuinely helpful at

the

design

stage

of

a

model

jet

engine project

.

The

actual

work done

is

assumed

to

he

equal

to

the

gain in

enthalpy

.

Using

this information

the pressure

value for

a

particular

wheel can be

calculated as

follows

:

2xc

x

Tx(:n:

'

''

-I

1J

=

-

u/

Let

us

assume

that

a

model

jet

engine

,

running at

a

mea



sured

rotational

speed

of

56,

000 rpm

,

achieves an

exces

s

pressure

in

the

housing

of

0.24

har

.

The wheel diameter

is

66

mm

,

the

air

temperature

17° C

and

air

pressure

1000

mbar

.

The pressure

value

can

now be

calculated

from

this

data

is as

follows

:

2x

1000]

I

kg

I

Kx290Kx(l.24

o.

2H6) -

1

J =

(0

.

066

m x 3,

146

x

000

.1

I

min

I

60s

I

min)

The units cancel

each other out

O]=kg

.m2

/s

2).

This

calcu



lated value

is

typical for

model

jet

engines with

slightly

retro-curved blades

.

Another

home-built

engine

with

a

turbocharger compressor and

radially

tipped

blade

s

pro



duces

a

pressure

value

of

around

1.16.

Large

compressors

in jet

engines

achieve

better

values

due

to

the numher

of

blades

(usually

higher)

and

the consequent

improvement

in

the reduced performance

factor.

For

example

,

the

Turhomeca

Marhore achieves

a

pressure

value

of

1.

35

in

its

hasic form

.

f

the

compressor

hlades feature

greater

retro-curva

ture

,

the

specific

pumping performance

is

lower

;

in

the

case

of

Kurt Schreckling

's FD 3

the

value

of

ljJ

is

around 0.86

,

although

it varies

according

to

wheel

design

and

construction.

When

a

model

jet

engine

is

running

the

pressure

value only

varies

within narrow

limits

.

t

is

certainly

permis

s

i-

hle

to

calculate rotational

speed

from

the

measured

pres



sure

ratio

,

and

vice versa

.

The pressure

ratio

can be

calculated from

the

formula

:

According

to

this formula

the

pressure

ratio

of

the engine amounts to about

1.

044

when

running at an

idle

speed

of

25.000

rpm

(

corresponding

to

a

peripheral speed

of

86

m s

This

corresponds

to

a

water

column

of

44

cm

and

agrees

very

closely

with

the

actual

values.

Working

the other

way

round

,

we

can determine

the

peripheral

speed

and

from that

the

rotational

speed from the pressure

value

and

the

pressure

ratio

.

J

lud

e

l

et ng

ines


u

2xc

xTx(JtUtI<, -

I)

(

II

The engine

we

are using

as

an

example produces

a

thrust

of

30

Newtons

on the

test

bench

.

The

pressure above

atmospheric

in

the

engine

is

then

0.91

bar. Normal

condi



tions apply

, i.e.

an

air

temperature

of

1,)° C

=

288

K

and

an air pressure

of

1.01:3

hPa.

The

pressure

ratio

is

there

fore

equal to

(1.

013

+

0.

91)/1.013

=

1.898.

u

2 x 1000] /

kg

/ ()Kx

288Kx

(1.89S0

286 -

I)

(

0.98 The

rotational

speed

can be

calculated

from

the stated

pe::riphe::ral

spe::e::d

as

follows

:

60s/minxu 60s/minx3

4

4m/s

99495

n

= = = ,

rpm

d

2

xlr

0.066mx3

.

14159

Turbocharger

compressors

For

the

moddler

the::

compressors

incorporate::d

in

tur



bocharg

ers

are

an

ide::al

starting

point

for

the

construc



tion

of

a

modd

je::t

e::ngine::

.

They take

the

form

of

small

radial

wheds

which

have

been

refined

to

a

high

level

through innumerahle

experiments carried out

hy

experts

.

The

strength

of

these

wheds

is

so great that

we need not

worry

ahout

it

even

at


speeds.

The

specifications

quote

failure

speeds

of

more

than

600

m/s

at

the

periphery

,

which

are

wdl

heyond

any

model

application.

Other components

in

the

model

jet

engine

,

such

as

the::

shaft

and

the

turbine

wheel,

have

much

lower

rotational

speed

limits

.

Neverthe::kss

the

high

spee::ds

necessarily involve

certain hazards

.

There

is

no

place for carelessness

when the

mOOeller

is

working

with

such

high-speed

rotating

parts.

The wheels

must not

he

modified

in

any way

,

and

especially

not

weakened

in

the

huh

area.

They must

be

securely

auached.

For this reason

a

left

-

hand thread

fixing

is

essential

for

a

right



hand rotation

wheel.

The compressor wheels

of

tur

bochargers

are

usually

cast in

aluminium

alloy

using

a

high-quality

casting

process

; a

technique which

allows

the production

of

extraordinarily

complex

curves

and

twists

.

The

design

of

this

type

of

wheel could

never

be

calculated using

amateur

means

,

far less

actually

made

.

Modern

turbocharger wheels achieve efficiency

kvels

which approach

to

within

a

few

percentage::

points those

of

the

radial

compressors

in

industrially

produced

fullsize

gas

turbines

.

Overall

th ~

components

offer by

far

the most promising

start

for

building

a

really

powerful

model

jet

engine

. As supplie::d

turhocharger compressors

are accurately

dynamically

halanced and

can he

installed directly in

the

model

jet

engine

.

Bear

in

mind

the

usual

rule

on

size:

the

higger

,

the

better.

Good wheels

of

around

60

mm

diame



ter

achieve

efficiencies

betwe::en

70

and 75

,

while

larger versions

approach

80

.

In

rece::nl

decades turbocharger

compressors

have been the

subject

of

considerahle development.

Early

exampks

virtually

without exception

featured

radiall

y

tipped

blades

.

since

these

types are

easy

to

manufacture

and supply high

pressure

levels

.

However

,

they

only

Uodel jet

ngilles

work

at

reasonahle

efficiency in

a

narrowly

de::finnl

r.l.I1ge

of throughputs

.

If

the engine

connected

to

the

tur

bocharger

requires

more

air

,

the

compressor

s

effective

ness diminishes

significantly

.

For

a

model

jet

engine::

this

narrow

operating

range

is

not

ne

cessarily

disastrous

,

since

the

throughput

of

the

turhine

stage

is

also limited

to

a

relatively

narrow

range

.

In fact

.

many

full-

size

jet engines

use

wheels with

radially

tipped

blades.

The

provi

so

with

this type

of

hlade

is

that

the

throughput

of

the::

model jet

engine

has to

be

matche::d

ve::ry

accurately

to

the

compressor

,

otherwise

good

re::sults

will

never he

obtained

.

The

charactc::ristics

of the

compressor

wheel must

be::

horne

in

mind

whe::n

you

are

operating

a

model

je::t

e::ngine. Whe::n

the

throttle

is

opened

the throughput

of

the

turbine stage

falls

for

a

moment

,

with

the

result that

the::

compressor

simply

goes

on

strike

if

you advance

the

throttle

too

quickly

.

Nowadays

compressor wheels with

retro

-

curved

Turbocharger

compressor

rom

a

diesel

engine.

Large

wheels

such

as

the

one shoum

are

often

machinedfrom

solid.

Smallturbochargerfrom

a

lorry

diesel

engine.

The

wheel

has

a

diameter

of

7

mm

and

eatures

radially

Upped

blades. Wheels

of

his type were

the

starting

point

for

several experiments.

The

model

jet

engine

based on

it

evelltually

produced

a

thrust

of4 N

at

81 000

rpm.

45


a

W

o

\

Col

-<

t

~

Vol

."

\\

Col

~

-

1

""',

\

\:;~

~

/1\

~) :-~j

I

~~

-

m

t

\\

~

~

>/

b

Behaviour

of

a

radial

compressor

at

a

loU

throughput

alld

b

high throughput.

blades have

superseded

all

others.

These

wheels

are

manufactured

in large

numbers and in numerous

variants. Usually

the

blade tip angle

2 is

between

60

and

75°

This

type

of

compressor

has

the

advantage

that

the

flow

through

the

blade

ducts

possesses

a

component

opposite

to

the

peripher.t1

direction

.

Thus the

specific

work

done

varies

according

to

the

rotational

speed

and

the

through-

put

of

the

wheel.

When

small

volumes

of

air

are moved

the

relative speed

W

z

in

the

blade

ducts

is

low

.

The

component

of

the

absolute

speed

c

211

in

the


is

then

almost as

great

as

the peripheral

speed

li

z

In

this

situa-

tion

the

specific

work done

Y

th

=

U

x

c

lu

is

of

a

similar

order to

that

of

a

compressor with

radially

tipped

blades.

As

throughput

rises

and

the

gas

speed

in

the

blade

ducts

becomes

high

the component

c

lu

becomes

smaller

since

the

air

between

the

blades

flows in a slightly

back-wards

dir

ec

tion

opposite to

the

direction

of

rotation

. As a result

the

pressure

supplied by the compressor

is

now

lower

. If

the

turbine stage

in

the

mod

el jet

engine

is

too

46

large

relative

to the

throughput,

the

compressor supplies

more

air

at low

pressure

.

If

on

the

other

hand

the

throughput

of

the turbine

stage

is

too

small

the

pressure

rises

and

the

volume

of

air moved

falls.

The

overall

result

is

that

within certain

limits

thi

s

type

of

compressor

adjusts

itself

auwmatically

to

a

given

turbine

stage

. If it is

your

a

im

to

build

a

successful

jet

engine

you

will

have

much

better

prospects

if

you

use

a

wheel with

retro-curved

blades.

In practice

this

type

of

engine

offers

the

extra

advantage

that

it

can

be

accelerated

extraordinarily

quickly

as

the

compressor works

efficiently

over

a

wide

range

of

rotational

speeds.

This effect

is

particularly

marked if

the

compressor

blades feature

significant

retro-

curvature

as used

in

Kurt Schreckling

s

FD :;

where the

blade angle

is

only

4

:;

°

As a

result

the

engine responds to

the throttle

almost

as fast as

a

well

adjusted piston

engine

.

Turbochargers

of

a lIseful

size for

model

jet

engines

are

u

se

d

with

a

bladdess

annular

diffuser

system. As

throughput

varies

the

flow

direction

in

the

M

od

elJe

t

EI gilles


diffuser

system also

changes. The

effect

is

not dramatic

with

a

bladeless

annular

dif-

fuser provided

thaI

the

angles

are not too

shal



low

. In

contrast

,

the

initial

direction

of

flow is crucial

with

the

bladed

diffuser

system used in

a

model

jet engine

.

In consequence the

operat-

ing

range

of

the com



pressor

in

the model

jet

engine

is

slightly

restricted compared

to

that of the

tur-

hocharger

.

The

compressor

characteristic

graph

The data

for

a

com

-

pressor

are usually

pre



sented

in

the

form

of

a diagram:

the

characteris

tic

graph

,

from

which

the

essential

data for

2.4

Z 2

Z O

1.8

1.6

the wheel

can

be

read

1.4 directly. A

characteristic

graph

is a

valuahle

hut

not

ahsolutely

essential tool

when

designing

a

model

jet

engine

.

1.2

Pressure ratio

120000

rpm

100000

Usually

the

air

throughput

and/or the

compressor

flow

are

dif



ferentiated

on the

x-axis

of the

diagram

.

The

pressure

ratio

is

stated

on the

y-axis.

kg/s

0_05 0 1

0,15

0 2

025

,ass

flow

The

characteristic

lines in

the

diagram

give

the

potential

pressure

and

throughput

for

the

Slated

cons am

rotation

-

Typical

compressor

characteristic

graph Of

a

turbocharger

compressor

with

retro-curved

blades_

Other

characteristic

graphs are

ilhlstrated

ilt

Gert

Hack's

book

Turbo

cars,

turbo-e1lgilles

n

from

Motorbuch'

J

erlag,

Stuttgart (Gennalt).

al

speeds

.

These

curves

always

have

a

negative gradient

, i.e.

the more

air

the compressor

supplies

,

the lower the

pressure

.

This hasic fact

also

applies to wheels with

radially

tipped

blade

s

The work

done

and thus

the

possible

final

pressure are exclusively

dependent

on

peripheral

speed

,

but

in practice

the reduced performance

factor

diminish

es

as

throughput

increases

.

When the

pr

e

ssur

e is

great

,

the

gas follows

the path

dictatnl

hy

the

blades

less

and

less

accurately

, i.e.

the

actual

s

pecific

work

done

is

slight

ly

lower

. Island

traces

on the

graph

indicate

efficiency

.

Note

that optimum

efficiency is usually

possible only

within

a

narrow range

. In

designing

a

turhocharger the

aim

is

to

match

the compressor

's

characteristics accurately

to

the

piston engine

to

which

the

unit

is

attached

,

hut the

hest

efficiency

position

on

the

diagram

is

also

a useful

indica



tor for

a

model jet engine.

The compressor

characteristic

graph

always

applies

to

a

particular atmospheric

pressure and temperature

. In

different

conditions

-

for

example

a

high

-

pressure

Modeljet

En

g

in

es

Air

path

througl:J a

bladeless

altltular

space_

47


Turbocharger

diJJuser system.

The

height

ofth flow

duct is reduced

immediately

behind

the rotor

wheel

weather

situation

with

very

low temperatures

-

through

put

and

pr

essure

rise significantly.

In

the

same

way

the characteristic

diagram only

applies

in

conjunction with

a

given

diffuser

system.

f

the

compressor wheel

is

used

with

a

different diffuser system important parameters may

alter

.

The compressor

charac



teristic

graph

of

a

turhocharger

is

not

the same

as

the

graph which would result

if

the

same

wheel

were

installed

in a

jet

engine.

The most

significant

changes

would

be

in

the

optimum

efficiency

level a

nd

the

position

of

what

is

known

as

the

surge line

.

/

/

c

Types

of

compressor

diffuser

system:

a)

Straight

diffuser

blades,

b) Forward curved

blades,

c)

Wedge

shaped

blade diffuser.

48

Diffuser

wheels

In

the

co

mpressor

diffuser systcm

the

resi

dual

s(X ed

energy

in

the

flow

is

converted into pressure

energy.

In

this

case

the

energy

in

the

gas

is

proportional

to

the

square

of

its

speed

.

Therefore

if

we

can

halve

the

gas speed

in

the

diffuser system

we

have

already

converted three

-

quarter

s

of

its

energy

. A

particularly critical

point

here

is

th

e

area immediately

hehind

the

rotor wheel

where

flow

speeds

are

still

high

.

The

diffuser

system in

this

area

must

be matched

very accurately

to

the rotor

wheel.

f

a

bladed

diffuser

system

is

used the

diffuser blades

must

he

designed

in

such

a

way

that they

start exactly

in

the

direction

of

the

flow

. A

variation

in

the

flow

angle

of

only

a

few

degree

s

may

mean

that the

model

jet

engine

refuses

to

filll

It

goes without

saying

that obstacles to

the

gas

,

such

as

pipes

and retaining

bolts

.

must

he kept

away from this area

.

The

compr

e

ssor

diffuser

, also

known

as

the

stator

,

can

he

huilt

in

any

of

several variants

.

In principle

we

can

dif



ferentiat

e

between

hladed

amI

non-hladed diffuser

sys

tems

. In

the

specialist

literature

the

latter

is

generally termed

a

bladdess

annular space.

This

type

is

very

easy

to make

amI is

efficient

if

designed

carefully.

The greatest

advantage

of

the

bladeless

annular

space

is

thaI

the com



pressor

as

a

whole

has outstanding

regulatory characteristics

.

Since

there

are

no

blades

it

is

not

possible for an incorrect

choice

of

blade angle to result

in

flow break



away

. T

he

hest solution for

a

model jet engine

is a

hladed dif



fuser

system

.

However.

the

diffuser hlades

should

not

start immediately adjacent

to

the

rotor

.

as at this

point

the

flow

speed

is still

very

unevenly distribut

ed. It is

hest if

the

flow has

a

chance to

even

itself

out

between

the

rotor

whed

and

the

diffuser hlades. If

the

angle

of

the

gas

flow

from

the rotor wheel

is

shallow

.

the

diffuser

blades

can

begin

closer

to

the

rotor

wheel.

as

the

air

then

follows

a

longer

path

to

the

diffuser

blades

. In

the

model jet

e

ngine

the

diffuser

blades should

start

after

a

gap

11

1.15

-1.2

times

the

wheel

diameter.

t

clearly

makes sense

to

place

a small

annular

space

in

front

of

the

diffuser hlades

.

Although

there

are

no

I I

o

del./el

En/ ) ies


hladts

at this

point

to

force

the

air

in a

particular direc



tion

, as

the

diameter increases

the

gas tlow slows

down

,

and with

this

comes

a

rise

in pre:.:.urt:. TIle

cause

of

thb

is

not

, as

you might imagine

,

the

widening

cross-section

of the

annular

space

as

the

diameter

increases

,

hut the

effect

of

centrifugal

force

,

directing

the

gas

outward.

The

effect

of

this

force

is

to

increase

the

pressure

of

the

medi

um

as

the diameter

rises.

However. according tu

Bernoulli s

law

the

total energy

in

the

flow

is

always constant

.

Where pressure

rises

,

speed

must

fall,

because

no

new

energy

is

added

in

the

diffuser system.

The

spiral

law

derived from this states

that

tht

product

of

the

radius

in

tht

diffuser sys

tt m

and

tht

spe::ed in

the::

ptripht:J al

direc



tion

is

constant

. Spiral

law

.

or

VorttX

law

r

x

c

ll

=

Constant

This

ph

ysical fact

of

lift

play

s

an

important

rolt

in ordi



nar

y daily lift: as

wdl

as

in

tht

modd

jt t

t ngint

.

Tht

spiral

law

is

obvious

if,

for

t xamplt

,

we

stir

a

cup of

tea

,

wht rt

the

spt t d

is

hi ht~t

close

to

the

centrt

. In

con

trast

,

the prt ssurt

is

highest

at

tht

t(\ge

,

as

we

can

tell from

tht

hdght

of

the

fluid.

The

speed

is

invtrsely proportional

to

the diamtter

uf

the

diffuser system

.

This indicatt s

tht

disadvantage

of the

hladelt

ss annular

space

.

f

we

are

aiming

at

efficient pres

sure

co

nversion

Wt

nttd

a

large

diamtte::r

diffustr.

Widening

the

flow

duct

does

not

hdp

.

Quitt

the oppo

site:

this

would

rt sult in flow

hreakdown

in

tht

diffuser

,

which

would involvt

substantial

losst:s. Tht:

air flowing

through

the

diffuser

descrihes

a

spiral

path

from

tht

tnd

of

the rotor

whed

to

tht tnd

of

tht: diffu

se

r.

The

anglt

of

the

gas

flow at an

imaginary

tangent

is

constant

at

every

point

on

tht:

path

,

and

follows

tht:

outflow

anglt:

uf

the rotor

wht:d

. In

mathtmatical

ttrms

the

flow

path descrihes

a

logarithmic

spiral,

whereby

the

outflow

anglt

of

tht

gas from

the rotor

whtd

dttermines

the

It:ngth

of

tht

path

.

The

grtater

this

anglt

,

the

fasttr the

gas

rtachts

a

large

diamtter

and

a

high

pressure

.

Tht

friction losSt:s

which

arise in this

process

art

also

propor

tional

to

the

length

of

the path

.

If

we comhine

a

compres



sor wheel

with

a

very shallow

o

utflow

angk

and

a

hladeless diffuser

,

we

ohtain

a

very long

flow

path

and

correspondingly

low

tffickncy

.

For this

reason

modtrn

compressors

,

tsptcially

in

tur



hochargtrs

.

utiIist hladeless

diffustr

systems

whose chan



nd

btcomts

narrowtr

away from

the

centre.

This

mtans

that

the

cross-stctional area

does

not

hecomt

largtr

,

and

the

air is

forced

to

a

largtr

diameter

hy

a

short

route

,

incurring

low

lossts

.

llnfortunately this trick

dots

not

hdp

us

reduce

the

external dimensions

of

tht

diffuser

sys

tem

.

Thus

for a

modd

jet

engine

a

bladdess

diffuser

alont: a

ppear

s

[ )

ht

an

unpromising

so

lution

.

One

of

our

primary considerations

in

dt:signing

l

modd

jet

tngint

must

be

the diamt:ttr

of

tht

unit

. If wt:

are to

keep the

frontal

area

of

tht

engint: as

compact

as

possihlt

.

tht

dif



fuser

app

aratus

must

he

as small as

possihlt

.

The

air

can

only

t

ddlt:cted

towards

tht

combustion

cham

her

with



out

incurring

stvtre

losses

once

it

has

given

up

most

of

its

energy

.

Htre

again

the

spiral

law

plays

a rolt:: tht:

ctn

trifugal

forces

which

<lrist

in

tht

defltction process

ttm.l

to

accelerate

tht

flow

on

tht

inside

of

tht

curvt

,

produc



ing

new

los..o; ::s

.

f

we

were

to

use

a

hladdess annular

spact:

alont

we

would

havt:

to

makt:

the

diameter

of

the engine at

least

twict

the diamettr

of

the compressor wheel

if

we

want

-

.

Vadd et

EIlf ,illes

ed

sensiblt:

dlicitnq

-

levels

. An

extra

problt:m

is

that

this

type;:

of

diffuser

cannot

<::Iiminatt tht:

twisting

motion

of

tht

gases

.

When the

air tlows

towards

tht

ct:ntre

of

tht

engine

in

tht

dirtction

of

the

combustion

chamht:r

,

the

spiral

law

again

dictatts

that the

pt:ripheral

compontnt of

the

flow

ll

would

incrtast

as

the

radius

falls. In

const

quence

gas

prtssurt

would

then

diminish

again.

To

counttr

this

efftct

diffuser hlades

would

certainly

be nteded

at

tht:

ptriphery

of

the

diffuser system

to

tlimi

nate

the

rt:sidual

spiral

motion

. In a

hladed

ditli.lstr

system

the

situation

is

difft:rent.

The

diffuser

hlades form

individual

flow

ducts

,

widening

towards

tht

periphery

.

Tht

ptripheral

components

of the

gas

and

the

twisting

motion no

longer have

to

he

taken

into

;

\cCOUIU

,

and

the

IInly

thing

that

imertsts

us

is

tht:

flow

within

tht:

individual

channels

.

The

crucial

point

htre

is

tht

expansion

angle of

the

bladts.

llnfortunatdy

wt:

are

restricttd

in

our

choice

of

angle

.

as

there

is a

dangtr of

flow

hrtakdown

.

fhe

sptcialiM

Iittra



ture

rtcommends expansion anglts

hetwttn

8

and

10

where

the

flow

is

slow

.

For

our

application

,

howevtr

,

the

angles

can

ht

slightly

largtr

to

take into

account

tht

txtrtmely

small dimt:nsions

of our engint

.

The

reason for

this

is

the

influtnct

of the

houndary layer

which

ht:comts

narroWt:f

as

the

width

of

the hladt

ducts

rises

.

Howevtr

, if

we

choose

an

expansion

anglt:

significantly

above

the

se

values

,

the

flow

tend

s

to

hreak away

from

tht

hladts

.

with

resultant severe

lossts

. In

contr.tst

, small

er

angles

produce

prtssure convtrsion

at

too

Iowa

rate

,

with

the rtsult

that

the

gas

flows

through

tht

channds

for

a

long time at high sptt:ll

,

producing

severe

friction

losst

s.

You can

give

your

imagination

free rein in

the

matter

of

the

blade configuration

in

the

difhlstr

.

Some typtS

of

guidt

vant: a

re

curve

d in

tht

dirtction of

rotation

of

tht

comprtssor

,

others

in

the opposite

dirt ctiun

.

Anothtr

popular

design

is

tht

wtdge

blade

difflJ~er

The

blades

grow

wkkr

toward

s

the

periphery

to

form

thick

wedges

.

thick

tnough

to

accommodatt

fixing

bolts

.

This

alont

is

an

exce

llent

reason

for

the

practical

modeller

to

opt

for

a

bladtd

diffuser

whtd

,

as

tht

bolts required

to

retain

tht

compressor

covt:r

can

he

faired

into the

ditfustr bladts

without

spoiling

tht

gas flow

. If

we

select

hladts

of constant

thicknt:ss

thtn

tht:

expansion

angle

httween

two

adjactnt bladts

is

ca

lculat



td

as follows

:

E

360

o

/z

E

Expansion

anglt

z

Number

of

blades

If

we

aim tilr

an expansion

ang

le

of

1 ;

-

tlltn

wt

havt

to

construct

a

diffuser syst

t:m

with

24

bladt:s

.

For smaller

expansion

anglt s

even

mort

bladt:

s

wou

ld

ht

rtquired.

Howt:ver

,

more hladts

also mt:an

mort

friction

and thus greater

los

ses.

For

this rta:.on it

is

bttter

to

use

hladt:s

which

art

curvt:d

slightly

furwards.

forming

gt:ntly

widening ducts

.

In

gtneral

ttrms

the

pressurt

conversion

takt:s

plact

much

fastt:r

than

in

tht

bladeless

annular

spact

alrtady descrihed.

f

tht

compressor

is <.\t:signtd

cardully

it is

now

possihlt:

to

build

a

modd

jtt

tngil

lt

of

rdatively

small

ovt:fall

diamett:r

.

Nevertheltss

Wt

should not he

too

parsimonious

with

tht

ovt:rdll

diameter

of

th

e

diffuser

systt:m

; a

good starring

point

is

a

housing diameter

at

It:ast ]

.6

times

tht

diameter

of

the

compressor rotor

.

49


The

gigaJltic

diffuser

sJ stem

o

he

AllisonJ33

-A-

35features

4

very low-profile

diffuser

ducts

.

Note

t :Je

bladeless

space

arranged betw

e

en the

rotor

wheel

and

the

diffuser

blades.

5

Ho

de

lJ

et

p i

s

or


The

blade:free

annular

sp€Ice

was

used

successfull)'

ill

tbefirst

bOllle-built

gas

turbines.

All

axial

diffuser system is

fitted

al

Ibe

periplJery_

Any

sma

ller

than this

,

and

the

efficielK1'

of

the

system

suf

fers

directly

, usually in

the

form

of

excessive

exhaust

gas

temperature

.

Example

of

calculating

the

diffuser system

We will ass

ume that the core

of

the

compressor

is a typical

turbocharger wheel with

retro-curvt:ll

hlades

.

The

calculation

is

based

on geometrical

data

,

hut

also

takes into acco

unt

our

own

experimental

findings. In

my

expe



rience these

values

can

he

carried

over

to

other

tur



bocharger rotors

of

similar

design

.

This

means that

the prosp

ectivt:

t:ngint:

huilder can

calculatt: tht: valut:s

for

a

compressor

for his

jet

engint: with rt:asonahk accuracy

evt:n

if

he

does not

havt: acct:ss

to th

e charactt:ristic

graph

of

tht:

turbochargt:r.

The roror

wheel we

will

consider here

is

66

mill in

diameter and has

12 bladt:s,

t:nding

at

an

angle

of

ahout

6;

".

The blade

hdght

is

'5

mm at

tht:

wheel outlet

.

The

nominal

rotational

s

peed

of

the

compressor

has

hcen chosen

to

keep

the

stresses

arising

in

the

model

jet

Forll'artl

C

Zlrl

'e

el

compre:',sor

diffuser

blades

ill

CO ,IJi,Ullioll

with

turbocharger

rotor

wheels

hal

'e

produced

tbe

best results

to

d€Ite.

cantly

.

Tn

fact

the compressor

gives

good

results

even when the

model

jet

engine

i >

idling

.

nxd

,Xlf

U

=

60

1

00000

X

1

minxO

.

066mx3

.14 '

(,

/

60s

/

min

=.

Ilm

s

The peripheral speeds

may

sound

astronomica

ll

y

high

.

At

its

peri

ph

ery

the rotor

is

turning at

a

speed

of

almost

1.2'50

km/hr

.

Howevt:r

.

it

would

still

not

bt: <

o

rrect

to

state

that the

air

n

the

comprt:ssor

is

flowing

at

superson



ic

speed

.

Wht:n tht:

gas rt:aches

the end

of

the rotor

wheel

it

has

already

heen compressed

to

half

its

volume

. i.t:.

pressure and temperature are

already

much

higher.

As

a

result

the

spet:d

of

sound

in

the

medium itself

rist:s.

Even

at

a

peripheral

speed

of

more than

4'50

m/s the

sound

barrier

cannot he exceeded

within

the

modd

jt:t

engine

.

From

the

compressor

characteristic

graph

we

ca

n

see

that

the

compressor

runs at maximum

efficiency

at the

engine

's

nominal

rotational

speed if the

throughput

is

engine wit

hin

reason



ahle

limits

.

In

this respect

the

maximum

rotation;\1 spt"ed

primar

i-

ly

depends

on

the

tur



bine

wheel

,

which

is

suhject

to

severe

thermal

load

s.

If

a

suitable

hlade

form

is

used

in comhination

with

high

aHoy

nickel·c

hromium

steels

peripheral

rotor

>peeds

of

more than

300

m/s are

au:eptable

, t:vt:n

with amateur

means

.

f

high

-

tt:mpnaturt: materi



als

are

u

sed this value can he pushed

further. The nominal

rotational

speed

is

therefore

as



sumed

to

he 100

,

000

rpm

. This

corresponds

to

a

peripheral

speed

of

:

Here the

diffuser

blades

are

elil.

ided i to

el

rillg

o

radial

blades

{lIld a ri71g

o

axial

blades.

If

the

va

lue

for

this

panl

meter turns out to he higher

or

lower than

ass

umed

.

efficiency

shou

ld

not

suffer

signifi-

51

or


0.

135

to 0.175

kg/s

.

Since

the

thrust

of

the

model

jet engine

rises

in

proportion

to

the throughput.

it

makes

sense for us

to

aim

at

the

highest

possihle value

here.

Against

this

requirement

we

have

to

set

the

need for the

engine

to

possess

a

hroad operating range and good,

docile

control characteristics

.

We therefore

aim

to set

up

the

diffuser

system for

a

throughput

of

0.16 kg/s

o Finally

we

extract

the

pressure ratio from

the characteristic

graph.

At 100,000

rpm and

a

throughput

of

0.16

kg/s

this

is

around

1.88

.

Standard

temperature

and pressure pre

vail, i.e. a

temperature

of

15°

C

and atmospheric pressure

of

1,

013 hPa

.

Now

the purpose

of

our

calculations

is

to obtain

an

overall

view

of

the

flow

conditions

at

the

wheel

outlet

and the

diffuser inlet.

Because

of

the

high pressure

ratio

the

effect

of

air

compressibility must

also

be

taken into

account.

We

will

assume

half

of

the

possible

pressure

rise

has already

taken

p\;lce

in

the compressor

wheel.

Admittedly

this

assumption

is

a

simplification

,

hut

my experimental

findings

to

date

show

that

this

is

reasonably accurate. We can

now

calculate

the

pressure

ratio

after the rotor wheel

as

folluws

:

~1 88

=

1.37

If

we

assume an

efficiency

of

74%

and an

inlet temperature

of

288

K

15

·

C)

the

air

temperature

rises

hy

:

~

=

288K .(1.37°

86

-1)

=

37K

0.74

to

325

K

or

52

°

C

At

the

same

time

gas density rises

to:

=

l.

37 x 101300Pa

=

1

488

k

1m3 p 325K 2B7] IKg IK

g

With

the help

of

the continuity equation

we

can

calculate

the

radial

speed

c

m.

The

cross-sectional area

A is

the

annular

cross-section at

the

periphery

of

the rotor

. Ox

16kgl

s

COl

=

=

104m

Is

1.488kg

/ m'

x3.14xO.066mxO.005m

C

Zu

298

The

vector

diagramfor

the

calculated

eXflmple

52

As

a

by-product

of

this calculation

we

can

find

the

supply

value

at

the

nominal point:

c

n

/u

2

=

104/346

=

0.3.

This value

is

typical

for

turbocharger wheels

,

as

shown

hy

the

characteristic

graphs

for similar

rotors

. If

you possess

a

retro-curved

compr

e

ssor

rotor

hut

lack

the

characteristic

graph

,

you

can assume

this

value

.

Wheels with

mdially

tipped

hlades generally

produce lower

supply

values

.

In

the

author

'S

experience

you can

assume

a

value in

the

range 0.25

to

0.

27

.

Once

we

know the

peripheral speed

u

b

the

known

radial

speed cm and

tile

blade tip

angle

Bb

we

can

calculate

the

overall

speed vector

as

follows

:

c

2u

=

2

- c

m

I

tan({32»

=

346- 104

I

tan 65

°»

:

298m

I

s

The

final

calculation

is

to define

the

outflow

angle

a

tound

from

the equation

tan

a)

:

cm/c

zu

=

104/298

:

0.3

49.

Thus at

the

periphery

of

the wheel the

gas

leaves

the rotor at

an

angle

a

of

19

.

24

°

to an

imaginary

tan



gent

.

This angle

is

a

constant

-

even after the

gas

has flowed

through

a

hladeless

annular space

of

constant

width

.

This indicates

that

the

adjacent

diffuser

blades

should

he set

at an

angle

of

about

19°.

Depending

on

the

thickness

of

the

blades

up

to

2°

may

be

added to this

fig-

ure to take into

account the

effective

reduction

in

cross

section

.

For

compressor wheels

with

radially

tipped

blades

cal

culating

the

guide vane

angle

is a

simpler

matter:

the

equation

is

tan

13

2)

=

$0).

For

optimum

efficiency

the

gas

flow

should

be

at

a

much

shallower

angle.

The calculated

value

is 1 S°.

which should

again

be corrected

to

17

°

to

allow for

the

narrowing

of

the

blades

.

One

of

the author

's

model

jet

engines has

a

guide vane

angit::

of

20°

and

radially

tipped compressor

blades

,

and

it

actually

tends

to

surge

at

full

throttle

.

The

surge limit

The

surge

limit

of

a

compressur

refers

to

a te

ndency to supply

the

working medium

cyclically

instead

of

con

stantly. TIlis

may

sound innocuous

,

but

in

the

world

of

full

size

engines

it is

viewed with

great

alann

,

since

the

usual result is

more

or

less

severe damage

to

the

engine

. In

the

cas

e

of

model engines

the

results

are

not so

dramatiC,

hut even so

the

thoughtless

experimenter could

damage the

compressor

of

his

engine

by

needlessly exceeding

the

surge

limit.

C.ompressor

surge has

a

very

simple cause. Consider

a

compressor

running at constant

rota

tional

speed

in

a

jet engine and

conveying

a

particular quantity

of

air

.

If

we

restrict

the

through



put

of

the engine

,

per



haps by

using

too

small a

turhine

wheel

due

to

mistakes

in

the

calcula-

tions)

,

then

the

compres

sor

will

push

less

air

through

,

hut

at

higher

pressure.

The compressor

can therefore

compensate

for

minor

inaccuracies in

design.

il1odel]e/

llgines

or


2.4 2.2

2.0

1.8

1UOOOOrpm

1.6 1.4

90000

rpm

1.2

tf

0.05

0 1

0 15

0.2

0.25

0 3

Explcmation

o

compressor

surging when

the

engine

is

accelerated.

i

he

throttle

is

suddenly

opened,

e g

startitlgfrom point

A,

throughput falls

initially,

and

point

B

is reached

Only

after

a

slight

delay

do rotational

speed

and

throughput

rise,

alld

we

reach

the

suction

lille

C

i

acceleratioll

is

el enfaster,

pOint

B

could extelld

illto

the surge

ZOlle

However

,

if

the throughput

is

excessively

restricted

,

the

results

an:

fatal.

The outflow

angle

of

the

gas from

the

compressor

wheel becomes too

shallow

. As a

result

the

gas

flows

onto the

blades

of

the

diffuser

system

at

such an

angle

that

the

airflow

hreaks

away.

If

the

com-pressor

is fitted

with

a

hladeless

annular space the

flow paths

grow

longer

and

the

friction

losses rise

substantially.

Overall

the

pressure

in

the

compressor

collapses.

Suddenly

the pressure supplied by

the compressor

is

lower than the pressure

of

the

gases

which

are already

inside

the

engine

,

and

the

direction

of

flow

reverses

.

This reverse

flow

continues

until

the

housing pressure

has

heen

reduced

,

and

the

compressor

starts to

supply

air

again.

This

process repeats

itself

at

regular

intervals

,

known

1110delJet

Engines

as

surge

cycles

.

The frequency

of

the cycles varies

according

t

the

volume

of

the

engine housing

:

the

larger

the

engine

s

internal

volume

,

the

lower

the frequency

.

In

a

model

jet

engine

the

surge

cycles follow

on

so

quickly

that

all

you

hear

is a

loud. unmistakahle growling

sound

.

f

this

should

happen

it is

essential

to close

the

throttle

immediately

since

the

engine

will usually

never clear

the

condition hy

itself.

f

you

do

not

close

the

throt-tle

the

turbine wheel

will

overheat

.

In

full-size

jet

engines

the

oscillations resulting

from

the

surge

phenomenon

usually

cause

damage

to the

blades

so the

situation

has

to

be

avoided at

all

costs

.

Some

axial

compressors are

fitted

with

variable

compres-sor

diffuser blades

which

adjust themselves in

a

fraction

of

a

section

to suit

the

prevailing

flow

angle.

t

is

also

5


possihk

to

vent

com-

pre::ssed

air

which

c;\Ust:s

the throughput

to

rist:

again

.

and

keeps

the

e::ngine::

a

safe

distance

from

the::

surge

limit.

All

example

of

a

turlm

sl:Jc fi

tl~itl

witb

a

small

axial

compressor:

ISOtOl'

GTD

350_

b ill

ill

1960.

USSR

air

tbroughpllt_-

2_19

kg/so

pressure

rCltio_-

5-9,

mass_-

135

kg,

speed

45 000

rpm,

295

kW

sbaft

power_

However

.

compressor

surge can

eve::n

occur

under certain

circum-

stances even

if the

tur



hine

stage

is

designed to

ensure::

that

its

through-

put

lies

in

the

re::gion

of

optimum

compressor

efficiency.

Whe::11

the

throttle

is

opened

from

a

particular

rotational

speed

.

the

comhustion

gas

temperature::

immedi-

ately rises. Howe::ver.

the

ine::rtia

of

the rotor

cam

es

the

rotational

speed

of the

engine to

remain

constant

for

a

moment. The

densit

y

of

the

gases

,

which are

now

at

a higher

temperature

, falls.

and

Vie,,'

ifthefirst

tbree

a.1(ial

compressor

stages

ill

tbe

[sotOl'

GTD

350.

After

tbe

axial

compressor

comes

olle

radial

stage.

Tbe

diameter

oft e

Wheels is

011/1

abouI130

mm

.

54

the

consequence

is

reduced

mass

throughput

at

the turhine

stage::.

For

a mome::nt

the

turhine

s(;tge is

suddenly working

much

clos

er

to

the

compre::ssor

surge

limit.

Only

then does the

engine:: s

rotor

accelerate.

Throughput

rises.

the::

comhus-

tion gas

temperature

falb and

stahilise::s

again

close to the

starting

valu

.

However

,

if

we

open

the

throttk

too quickly

,

the throughput

may

momentarily

fall

to

the::

point

whe::re

the compressor

starts to surge

.

If

this

should

happen

, it is

essential to

reduce the

throttle

St:t-

ting

immediately

.

The compressor

surge

limit

is

more

critical in a

model

jet

engine if

the

bladt:

tip

angk of

tht:

compressor

rotor

hlades

is

large

.

Model

jet

engines with retro curved blades

art:

extrt:mdy

resistant to

surge

.

In

contrast

,

types with

r.ldially

tipped

hlades are

very

sus

ceptihk

to

surge

when

the

throttk

is

opened

.

In

this case

the::

surge

limit varies

primarily according to

the

de::sign

of

the

diffuser system. If

the

blade

angle

is

e::xce::s-

sive.

this

type

of

comprt:ssor

tends

to

surgt:

t:ve::11

at

fullthrottle::.

The

axial

compressor

To date

I

have::

not

ht:ard

of

any

model

jet

engine

with

an

axial

comprt:ssor

. Nt:ve::rthde::ss tht: axial compre::ssor

deserves

atte::ntion.

and

will

lkal

with

it

hridly

.

have ddiht:rately

simpli

finl

the

theory

,

and conct:ntrated

on

tht:

most commonly

uSt:d

type::

. The::re is

11

reason

why an

axial

comprt:ssor

shou

ld

not he

used

for

a

model

jet

engint:

,

dtht:r

alone

or

in

comhination

with

a radial compre::ssor.

Industrially

pro-

duced

small

gas turbint:s

otkn

featurt:

one or

more::

axial

stages

in

front

of

the::

radial compre::ssor,

and

even at

very small

dimensions

tht:st: compre::ssors

exhibit

adequate:: effi

ciency

kvels

.

The

sma

llest axial

wheels

have::

a

diameter

of

around

)0

mm

and

art: fitted

in

front

of

radial

compres-sor

s.

The::

advantage

of

the

axial

compressor

is its grt:at

throughput comhined

with

small

frontal

are::a

.

The

pre::ssure

rise in

an

axial

stage

is usually

distrih

-

,'vlodelJet

EI/p illes



























































Thomas Kamps - Model Jet Engines - 190037191X

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Thomas Kamps - Model Jet Engines - 190037191X

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