An augmented–depleted framework of AI awareness: Concept expansion and scale development

The Industrial Revolution 4.0, characterized by significant technological advancements, has sparked profound transformations in the tourism and hospitality industry, as noted by Almada-Lobo (2016). In response to this revolution, numerous renowned hotel chains, such as Marriott, Hyatt, and InterContinental, have embraced the future by incorporating intelligent room systems and robots into their daily operations. These systems engage guests through voice or touchscreen interfaces, offering functionalities such as room control, information inquiries, dining services, and travel recommendations. They serve as essential features for addressing diverse daily service needs and enhancing customer experiences (Makridakis, 2017, Li et al., 2019). The introduction of artificial intelligence (AI) technology enables more personalized and memorable experiences for customers, enhances service efficiency, and reduces labor costs for businesses (Davenport and Ronanki, 2018, Liu et al., 2025). However, it also impacts employees’ psychology and behaviors in the hospitality and tourism industry (Brougham and Haar, 2018).

Some scholars have shifted their focus toward employees who are influenced by AI and introduced the concept of AI awareness to reflect their perceptions and beliefs regarding AI. As a vital segment of the service industry, the hospitality sector is undergoing profound transformations driven by AI technology. Employees' acceptance and understanding of AI technology directly influence their job performance and customer experience. Consequently, understanding employees' AI awareness is crucial for enhancing service quality, boosting employee satisfaction, and improving job performance. Scholars such as Brougham and Haar (2018) defined AI awareness as the recognition that AI machines, such as robots and algorithm management systems, may replace employees’ current jobs in the future, which creates an uncertain situation that could be detrimental to employees. This perspective predominantly considers AI to be a source of job insecurity and has been widely accepted by scholars in the tourism and hospitality industry (e.g., Kong et al., 2021; Liang et al., 2022). However, other scholars appraise AI as a challenge that generates potential feelings of achievement fulfillment (Ding, 2021), categorizing AI awareness into two dimensions—challenge and hindrance—from a stress perspective.

Understanding employees’ AI awareness in the tourism and hospitality industry helps understand how to enhance employees’ job satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, work engagement, and service performance in human–AI interactive situations. Scholars adopting a job insecurity perspective suggest that AI awareness increases employees' turnover intentions, depression, cynicism (Brougham and Haar, 2018), and work withdrawal (Teng et al., 2023) while decreasing career competency (Kong et al., 2021). Conversely, from a stress perspective, it is argued that challenging AI awareness fosters intrinsic motivation (Liang et al., 2022) and job crafting (He et al., 2023) while reducing emotional exhaustion (Liang et al., 2022) and job insecurity (He et al., 2023). However, hindrance AI awareness is believed to bring about the opposite effect.

Given the diversity of research perspectives and contradictory conclusions outlined above, it is evident that the current understanding of AI awareness in the tourism and hospitality industry remains incomplete. Notably, although existing studies such as those by Ferikoğlu and Akgün (2022) and Owsley and Greenwood (2024) have developed AI awareness scales in the education and new media sectors, respectively, the applicability and validity of these scales in the hospitality industry have yet to be thoroughly validated. Consequently, the development of a comprehensive and coherent AI awareness scale specifically tailored for employees in the hospitality industry is of paramount importance. This scale would not only address the gaps in existing hospitality research but also serve as a tool for exploring the specific effects of AI awareness on employees' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral outcomes.

Building upon this necessity, the study aims to propose a comprehensive classification framework of AI awareness, encompassing two dimensions: AI-augmented and AI-depleted. AI-augmented awareness refers to employees’ positive perception that AI technology can enhance work efficiency, optimize work processes, and create new opportunities (He et al., 2023, Tan et al., 2023). In contrast, AI-depleted awareness reflects concerns that AI may replace human jobs, render skills obsolete, and heighten job insecurity (Zhao et al., 2023, Zhou et al., 2024). Through this classification framework, we aim to offer a more comprehensive understanding of how various types of AI awareness correlate with employees' unique outcomes (Li et al., 2021).

To achieve this goal, two studies were employed to develop and test a comprehensive classification of AI awareness (as shown in Fig. 1). In Study 1, a multi-source, multi-method approach was utilized to develop and test an expanded classification of AI awareness. By combining a priori theory with qualitative data, this study identified the dimensions and measurement items of AI awareness. Furthermore, we validated the scale through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to establish its psychometric properties. In Study 2, data from a time-lagged survey were used to validate the outcomes of AI awareness. By employing complementary methods, this study extends the perspectives on AI awareness, going beyond the existing assumptions that primarily associate AI awareness with job insecurity and stress (e.g., Brougham and Haar, 2018; He et al., 2023). By developing a novel measurement scale and validating the wide-ranging consequences of AI awareness for employee cognitional, emotional, and behavioral outcomes, this study contributes to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of AI awareness.