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Review Article
ISSN: 2754-4753
History of Physics
Institute of Radiation Problems, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, AZ 1143 - Baku, Azerbaijan
Gunel Imanova
Journal of Physics & Optics
Sciences
Famous physicists
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
The ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes, famous for
his ideas regarding uid mechanics and buoyancy
The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) is
remembered for his development of a heliocentric model of
the Solar System
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022
Open Access
*Corresponding author
Gunel Imanova, Institute of Radiation Problems, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, AZ 1143 - Baku, Azerbaijan.
E-mail: gunel_imanova55@mail.ru
Received: July 12, 2022; Accepted: July 18, 2022; Published: July 25, 2022
ABSTRACT
Physics is an exact science and studies the quantitative regularities of natural phenomena at both the macroscopic and microscopic levels. e term "physics"
rst appears in the works of Aristotle in antiquity. In the early days, the terms "physics" and "philosophy" (natural) were used as synonyms, as both were
intended to explain the laws of the universe. However, as a result of the scientic revolution, physics began to take shape as a separate eld of science in the
16th century. A [1-50] reference was used in writing the review article.
Volume 4(4): 1-11
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 2-11
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)
Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782)
Michael Faraday (1791–1867)
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824–1907)
Ibn al-Haytham (965 - 1040), optics
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)
Marie Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934)
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 3-11
Galileo Galilei gave a modern assessment of the relationship
between mathematics, theoretical physics and experimental
physics
Isaac Newton (1643-1727). His laws of motion and the law of
universal gravitation laid the foundations of classical physics
Max Planck (1858–1947), founder of quantum mechanics
Albert Einstein (1879—1955). His work on the photoelectric
effect and the theory of relativity revolutionized 20th-century
physics
The 1927 Solvey Conference with the participation of prominent
physicists such as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Max
Planck, Hendrik Lawrence, Niels Bohr, Maria Curie, Erwin
Schrödinger and Paul Dirac
General Information
Physics was formed mainly as an experimental science: its laws
are based on facts obtained experimentally. These laws are based
on certain quantitative relations and are expressed in mathematical
language. Physics is divided into two sections - experimental
physics and theoretical physics. In experimental physics, special
conditions are created for the observation and experimental
study of physical phenomena. The methods and equipment
used to conduct experiments can vary widely, depending on
the specic eld of physics, from simple devices (such as the
Cavendish experiment) to giant mega-projects such as the Large
Hadron Collider. Theoretical physics, on the other hand, seeks
to explain real events in nature by creating mathematical models
of physical objects and systems, and predicts the possibility of
new effects and phenomena unknown to science. Of course, the
achievements and development of modern physics is the product
of the mutual exchange of the two approaches mentioned above.
Thus, experimental physics provides theoretical physics with
both experimental facts and conrms experimentally whether
the theoretical propositions are true. Also, at the beginning of
the 21st century, the whole set of physical knowledge, depending
on the size of the objects studied, was applied to microphysics
(in the order of 10–18–10–8 m), macrophysics (10–8–1020 m) and
mega physics (section 1020–1026 m). has been; microphysics
studies elementary particles and the atomic nucleus, as well as
atoms and molecules, macrophysics studies the physical objects
that make up animate and inanimate nature, and mega physics
studies cosmic objects. In order to systematize the diversity of
the world's objects of study and forms of motion, physics is
divided into several interrelated sections at one level or another.
This separation is not monolithic and can be based on different
criteria. According to the objects of research, physics is divided
into elementary particle physics, nuclear physics, atomic and
molecular physics, gas and liquid physics, solid state physics,
and plasma physics. According to the forms of motion of matter,
there are divisions such as mechanical motion, thermal processes,
electromagnetic phenomena, gravity, weak, and strong interactions.
From a macroscopic point of view, physics includes mechanics
(classical mechanics, relativistic mechanics, mechanics of solids
- including hydrodynamics, acoustics, and solid state mechanics),
thermodynamics, optics (physical optics, crystal optics, and
nonlinear optics), electrodynamics, electrodynamics, and
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 4-11
electrodynamics. Electro Hydrodynamics). From a microscopic
point of view, physics includes atomic physics, statistical physics
(statistical mechanics, statistical eld theory, physical kinetics),
quantum physics (quantum mechanics, quantum eld theory,
quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromo dynamics, theoretical
physics of wires, theoretical physics, theory). Can be divided
into sections.
In physics, the teaching of dances and waves is often referred to as
a special section. This is due to the fact that many of the various
phenomena that occur in nature can be explained by regularities
inherent in dance processes and studied by general methods. In this
section, mechanical, acoustic, electrical, optical oscillations and
waves are considered from a single position. Sometimes applied
physics is also distinguished as one of the branches of physics.
Despite all the diversity of the physical world, modern physics
is based on several fundamental theories. These theories, which
are the quintessence of knowledge about the nature of physical
processes and events, allow us to explain the different forms of
movement of matter in nature.
Formation of Physics
From ancient times the physical phenomena of the environment
have attracted people's attention. Attempts to understand and
explain the causes of these events have played an embryonic
role in the development of physics. During the Greco-Roman
period (6th-2nd centuries BC), the rst ideas about the atomic
structure of matter were formed (Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius);
the geocentric system of the world was created (Ptolemy); the
simplest laws of statics (ling's rule) were dened, the laws of
linear propagation of light, as well as the laws of return were
discovered; the initial regularities of hydrostatics (Archimedes'
law) were discovered; elements of the manifestations of electrical
and magnetic phenomena began to take shape. BC Achievements
up to the 4th century were summarized by Aristotle. In addition
to individual correct propositions, Aristotle's physics had some
aws; he did not reect in his work the progressive ideas of some
of his predecessors, such as the atomic hypothesis. Although
Aristotle emphasized the importance of experience, he preferred
abstract ideas as the main criterion for the accuracy and validity
of knowledge. In the later stages of history, the process of
development and dissemination of ancient knowledge stopped,
and over a long period of time this knowledge was lost and
reached the point of extinction (Europe's "Dark Ages", 5
th
-15
th
centuries). It was only in the middle Ages, as a result of the efforts
of Eastern thinkers, that Aristotle's works were translated into
Arabic and reborn in the scientic and philosophical environment
of the East. These scholars not only gave a detailed explanation
of the scientic and philosophical views of antiquity, but also
enriched them with new ideas. Thus, in the Middle Ages, Ibn
al-Haytham (Latin name Alhazen; 965, Basra - 1039, Cairo) is
considered the creator of a scientic method based on experiment
and mathematical explanation. In his 7-volume Book on Optics,
written by Ibn al-Haytham from 1011 to 1021, he described his
experiments to prove his theory of vision and showed that the
eye only perceives other objects. Until then, Euclid-Ptolemy's
teaching was that the eye itself radiates light. Ibn al-Haytham
studied the laws of light propagation in his experiments using
an observation camera. Later, research on optics was further
developed by the founder of the Istanbul Observatory, Tagi al-Din
(1526, Damascus - 1585, Istanbul). In general, during the 8th and
15
th
centuries, Nasreddin Tusi, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi
(Alpharabius), Ibn Rushd (Avverroes), Ibn Sina (Avisenna), Abu
Rayhan al-Biruni, Omar -Khazini, Ibn-Bajja (Avempace), Jabir-
ibn-Khayyam and other scientists - philosophers contributed to
the development of optics, laws of mechanical motion (statics,
dynamics, kinematics), mechanisms, hydrostatics and astronomy.
Some of the negative aspects of Aristotle's teaching, canonized
by the church in Europe, hindered the development of science
until the Middle Ages. It was only in the 15th and 16th centuries
that science was able to break free from Aristotle's scholastic
teachings. In the middle of the 16
th
century, Copernicus advanced
the heliocentric system of the world, freeing the natural sciences
from theological inuences. The needs of the manufacturing
industries, as well as the development of crafts, shipbuilding and
artillery, stimulated experimental research. However, in the 15th
and 16
th
centuries, experimental research was largely episodic.
It was not until the 17
th
century that the experimental method
began to be systematically applied to physics, and this led to the
emergence of the rst fundamental theory, classical Newtonian
mechanics.
Formation of Physics as a Science
The development of physics as a science in the modern sense
is associated with the works of G. Galilei (rst half of the 17th
century). Galileo showed that the effect of a given body on a given
body determines its acceleration, not its speed, as is accepted
in Aristotle's mechanics. The initial expression of the law of
inertia, the discovery of the principle of relativity in mechanics,
the experimental proof that the acceleration of the independence
of objects does not depend on their mass and density, and the
conrmation of Copernicus' theory are associated with Galileo's
name. He also made many astronomical discoveries (mountains
on the surface of the moon, Jupiter's satellites, etc.) by creating
a telescope with high magnication. The rst thermometer,
developed by Galileo, paved the way for the quantitative study
of thermal phenomena. During this period, advances were also
made in the study of the properties of gases. Thus, Galileo's student
E. Torricelli conrmed the existence of atmospheric pressure and
created the rst barometer. R. Boyle and E. Marriott correctly
studied the elastic compression properties of gases and correctly
expressed the rst gas law named after them. W. Snellius and
R. Descartes discovered the law of refraction of light. It was
during this period that the microscope was created. A new step
in the study of magnetic phenomena was taken by U. Gilbert.
He proved that the Earth resembles a large magnet, and for the
rst time explained the signicant difference between electrical
and magnetic phenomena. The greatest achievement of the 17th
century was the emergence of classical mechanics. Developing the
ideas of Galileo, H. Huygens and other predecessors, I. Newton
systematically expressed all the basic laws of mechanics in his
work "Mathematical Foundations of Natural Philosophy" (1687).
For the rst time in the creation of classical mechanics, the idea
of scientic theory, which is still used today, was applied. The
greatest achievement of Newtonian mechanics was the creation
of a universal law of gravitation that explained the motion of
celestial bodies. With the help of this law, it has been possible to
calculate the motion of the planets and comets of the Moon and the
solar system with great accuracy, and to explain the phenomena
of swells and contractions in the oceans. Newton's law was based
on the concept of long-term effects. According to this concept,
the interactions between objects (particles) in space propagate
instantly. Newton also articulated classical concepts such as the
absolute space in which all matter is located and the absolute time
owing with a single decision, regardless of its properties or the
properties of motion. Until the theory of relativity emerged, these
notions of space and time remained unchanged. It was during
this period that Huygens and G. Leibniz discovered the law of
conservation of momentum; Huygens, the founder of the theory
of physical dancing, created the rst dancer (kafr) watch. The
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 5-11
scientic review of the principle of operation and construction of
stringed musical instruments began after M. Mersenn discovered
the regularities of the oscillation frequency of a stretched wire;
Mersenn also experimentally determined the speed of sound in the
air for the rst time, and Newton theoretically obtained the formula
for the speed of sound. Beginning in the second half of the 17th
century, the installation of new telescopes and optical devices led
to the rapid development of geometric optics, as well as physical
optics. The physicist Grimaldi discovered the diffraction of light,
and Newton conducted fundamental research on the dispersion
of light, thus laying the foundations for optical spectroscopy.
In 1676, O. Romer rst measured the speed of light. At about
the same time, two different theories about the physical nature
of light — corpuscular and wave theory — began to develop.
According to Newton's corpuscular theory, light is a stream of
particles emanating from a source and propagating in all directions.
According to Huygens, light is a wave of waves propagating in the
air, in a hypothetical environment that lls all space and penetrates
all objects. In the 18th century, the development of classical
mechanics, especially celestial mechanics, became even more
widespread. The mathematical explanation of a small anomaly
in the motion of the planet Uranus made it possible to predict the
existence of a new planet, Neptune (discovered in 1846). Such
achievements increased the belief in the correctness of Newtonian
mechanics, and thus the diversity and diversity of all events in the
world. Such a description of the world has long inuenced the
development of physics. The scientic and complete explanation of
a physical phenomenon was measured by its degree of conformity
to mechanical laws. One of the factors driving the development of
mechanics was the ever-increasing demand for production. Thus,
L. Euler et al. they worked out the dynamics of an absolutely
rigid body. Along with the development of the mechanics of
particles and solids, the mechanics of liquids and gases were
also developed. Already in the rst half of the 18th century, as
a result of the efforts of D. Bernoulli, J. Lagrange, L. Euler and
others, the foundations of the hydrodynamics of an ideal uid - a
non-compressible uid with no viscosity and thermal conductivity
- were laid. In Lagrange's Analytical Mechanics (1788), the
equations of mechanics were expressed in such a general way that
they could be easily applied to non-mechanical processes, such as
electromagnetic processes. In other elds of physics, the process
of collecting experimental data and nding simple experimental
laws was also developing. Dufe discovered the existence of two
types of electric charges and showed that objects with charges
of the same name repel each other, and objects with charges of
different names attract each other. B. Franklin discovered the law
of conservation of electric charge, H. Cavendish and S. Coulomb
discovered the basic law of electrostatics (Coulomb's law), which
determines the force of interaction between electric charges at
rest. Franklin, G. Richman, and M. Lomonosov, who studied
electrical phenomena in the atmosphere, proved that lightning
and thunder were of an electrical nature. In the eld of optics,
P. Buger and I. Lambert laid the foundations of photometry;
infrared (U. Herschel, U. Wollaston) and ultraviolet rays (I. Ritter,
Wollaston) were discovered. Signicant progress has also been
made in the study of thermal events; after the discovery of the
latent melting temperature by C. Black and the experimental
proof of heat retention in calorimetric experiments, the concepts
of temperature and heat quantity began to be differentiated. The
concept of heat capacity was introduced into science; the study
of heat transfer and thermal radiation phenomena has begun. It
should be noted that during this period, misconceptions about
the nature of heat were created - a calorie theory that perceived
heat as an indestructible, weightless special liquid (caloric) that
could ow from heated objects to cold objects. The theory of
molecular-kinetic heat, proposed by Newton, R. Hooke, Boyle,
Bernoulli, and others, who took heat as the result of the internal
motion of the particles that make up matter.
Classical Physics
The rivalry between the corpuscular and wave theories of light
nally culminated in the victory of wave theory in the early 19th
century. One of the main reasons for this was the convincing
explanation of the phenomena of diffraction and interference of
light by T. Jung and O.J. Fresnel, as well as the wave theory of
polarization. Corpuscular theory could not explain these events.
Fresnel, who imagined light as transverse waves propagating in
an elastic medium (ether), proposed the law that determines the
intensity of refracted and returning streams of light as light waves
pass from one medium to another, as well as the double refraction
of light. The discovery of electric current by L. Galvani and A.
Volta was of great importance for the development of physics.
The emergence of strong direct current sources - galvanic batteries
- has led to the study of various effects of electric current. The
chemical effects of electric current have been studied by H. Devi
and M. Faraday. The discovery of the effect of an electric current
on a magnetic needle (H.K. Ersted, 1820) proved that there is a
close connection between electrical and magnetic phenomena,
and on this basis A. Ampere said that all magnetic phenomena
are charged particles that move a moving particle. As a result of
these studies, Ampere determined the value of the interaction
force between electric wires experimentally (Ampere's law). In
1831, Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction. Attempts to explain this phenomenon with a long-term
concept have failed. To explain such phenomena, Faraday (before
the discovery of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction)
puts forward a new hypothesis: the electromagnetic interaction
takes place through an intermediate agent - the electromagnetic
eld (the concept of proximity). This hypothesis led to the
formation of a new science about the properties and regularities
of a special type of matter - the electromagnetic eld. In the early
19
th
century, Dalton introduced the idea of atoms, the smallest
indivisible part of matter, to science (1803). The foundations of
solid state physics were laid in the rst quarter of the 19
th
century.
In the 17th and 18th and early 19th centuries, data were collected
on the macroscopic properties of solids (metals, technical
materials, minerals, etc.) and on external inuences (mechanical
forces, heat, electric and magnetic elds, light, etc.). empirical
laws concerning Thus, the study of the elastic properties of solids
is based on Huck's law (1660), the study of their thermal properties
is based on Dulong-Pti's law for heat capacity (1819), and the
study of the electrical conductivity of metals is based on Ohm's
law (1826). During this period, a general theory of the elastic
properties of solids was developed (L.M.A. Navye 1819–26, O.L.
Cauchy, 1830), as well as a scientic idea of the basic magnetic
properties of solids. It should be noted that in the explanation of
most of the results obtained in this eld, solids were considered
as a solid medium (although most scientists of that time knew
that crystals have an internal microscopic structure). The discovery
of the law of conservation of energy, which encompasses all the
phenomena that occur in nature, was of great importance not only
for physics, but also for the natural sciences in general. In the
middle of the 19
th
century, the amount of heat and the equivalence
of work were proved experimentally and it was shown that heat
is a type of energy and that no hypothetical substance - calories
- is needed to explain it. It was during this period that YR Mayer,
C. Cole and G. Helmholtz discovered the law of conservation and
conversion of energy independently of each other. The law of
conservation of energy, called the rst law of thermodynamics,
became the basic law of the theory of thermal phenomena
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 6-11
(thermodynamics). Even before the discovery of this law, S. Carnot
in his book "Thoughts on the driving force of re and the machines
that can develop this force" (1824) introduced another fundamental
law of thermal theory - the second law of thermodynamics. R.
Clausius (1850) and W. Thomson (1851) correctly stated this law
in their works. This law, arising from the generalization of
experimental facts proving the irreversibility of thermal processes
occurring in nature, also determines the direction of possible
energy processes. J.L. Gay-Lussac's research played an important
role in the formation of thermodynamics as a doctrine. Based on
these studies, B. Clapeyron obtained the equation of state for an
ideal gas, and later D. Mendeleev generalized this law. Along with
the development of thermodynamics, the molecular-kinetic theory
of thermal phenomena was developing, and soon a new type of
probabilistic law, the statistical law, was discovered between
physical quantities. In the early stages of the development of
kinetic theory, a simple medium for gas - Coul, Clausius, etc.
average values of different physical quantities: velocity of
molecules, one sec. the number of their collisions during the
period, the number of free runs, and so on. They managed to
calculate. A formula was obtained that expressed the dependence
of the gas pressure on the number of molecules in a single volume
and the average kinetic energy of their forward motion. Such an
approach to thermal phenomena has made it possible to characterize
the physical nature of the concept of temperature as a measure of
the average kinetic energy of gas molecules. The second stage in
the development of molecular-kinetic theory began with the work
of C.K. Maxwell. In 1859, he was the rst to introduce the concept
of probability into physics, discovering the law of distribution of
molecules by speed (see Maxwell's distribution). After that, the
possibilities of molecular-kinetic theory expanded and led to the
emergence of statistical mechanics. L. Boltsman developed the
kinetic theory of gases and gave a statistical explanation of the
laws of thermodynamics. Boltsman contributed to the solution of
a major problem - the fact that macroscopic processes do not
return in nature when the motion of individual molecules rotates
with time. According to Boltzmann, the thermodynamic
equilibrium state of the system is max. that is, the irreversibility
of the process is due to the system becoming more probable.
Boltsman also proved the theorem of equal distribution of the
average kinetic energy of the molecules that make up a gas
according to the degrees of independence. The method of
calculating the distribution function for any system in
thermodynamic equilibrium was proposed by C. Gibbs (1902),
and thus the process of formation of classical statistical mechanics
was completed. After A. Einstein and M. Smoluxowski correctly
explained the Brownian motion observed experimentally by J. B.
Perren on the basis of molecular kinetic theory, statistical
mechanics was universally accepted in the 20th century. In the
second half of the 19th century, Maxwell's long-term study of
electromagnetic phenomena was completed. Thus, in his Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism (1873), he used the equations of
the electromagnetic eld (named after him) to explain the facts
up to that time from a single point of view, and even to predict
the possibility of new events. Maxwell described the phenomenon
of electromagnetic induction as the process of creating a vortex
electric eld by means of a changing magnetic eld. He also
predicted the possibility of the opposite effect - the creation of a
magnetic eld by means of an alternating electric eld. The most
important result of Maxwell's theory is that the speed of propagation
of an electromagnetic interaction is nite (equal to the speed of
propagation of light). H. Hertz's experimental observation of
electromagnetic waves (1886–1889) conrmed Maxwell's theory.
According to his theory, light is electromagnetic in nature. Thus,
optics became a subject of electrodynamics. One of the results of
Maxwell's theory was that the light ux had a pressure. At the
end of the 19th century, PN Lebedev observed this in practice and
measured the pressure of light, while AS Popov and G. Marconi
were the rst to transmit electromagnetic waves wirelessly. During
this period, G. Kirchhoff and P. Bunzen laid the foundations of
spectral analysis (1859). The theory of elastic oscillations and
waves in acoustics (Helmholts, C.U. Reley, etc.) was developed.
The mechanics of wet environments continued to develop. The
technique of obtaining low temperatures was developed. All gases
except helium were obtained in liquid form; at the beginning of
the 20th century, H. Kamerling-Onnes (1908) was able to liquefy
helium.
Relativist and Quantum Physics
Nuclear and Elementary Particle Physics
The discovery of the electron in 1897 by C. Thomson marked a
new era in the development of physics. It turned out that atoms
are not elementary particles, but complex systems with electrons
inside. The study of electrical discharges in gases played an
important role in this discovery. In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, Lawrence laid the foundations of electronic theory.
Albert Einstein (1879—1955). His work on the photoelectric
effect and the theory of relativity revolutionized 20th-century
physics. At the beginning of the 20th century, it became clear that
in order to explain electrodynamics, it was necessary to radically
change the notions of space and time that underlie Newton's
classical mechanics. In 1905, A. Einstein created a new doctrine
of space and time - a special theory of relativity. The works of
Lawrence and H. Poincaré played an important role in the
development of this theory. According to Galileo's principle of
relativity, mechanical events occur in the same way in all inertial
computational systems. It was considered that electromagnetic
phenomena should also follow this principle, and therefore the
form of Maxwell's equations should not change (remain invariant)
as it passes from one inertial system to another. However, research
has shown that electromagnetic phenomena do not conform to
Galileo's principle of relativity. Although the formulas for the
transformation of coordinates and time to keep Maxwell's
equations invariant were found by Lorentz, he was unable to
correctly interpret these transformations. Einstein claried this
issue with the help of his special theory of relativity. The discovery
of the special theory of relativity showed the limitations of the
mechanical model of the world, and proved that attempts to explain
electromagnetic processes by mechanical processes occurring in
the air, which is a hypothetical environment, proved futile. Thus,
it became clear to science that the electromagnetic eld is a special
type of matter and does not obey the laws of mechanics. In 1916,
Einstein approached the concepts of space, time and gravity from
a single point of view, creating a physical theory that unites them
in the form of unity - the general theory of relativity. At the turn
of the twentieth century, with the emergence and development of
quantum theory, the foundations were laid for great change in the
eld of physics. As far back as the late 19th century, it became
clear that classical statistical physics, which assumed an equal
distribution of energy according to degrees of freedom, could not
explain the experimental facts about the spectrum of thermal
radiation. According to the existing theory, an object had to radiate
electromagnetic waves at any temperature and thus had to cool
to absolute zero temperature, i.e. the heat balance between matter
and radiation was impossible. But daily experience showed the
opposite. M. Planck found a way out in 1900. He showed that if
we accept that the electromagnetic energy emitted by atoms
(according to classical electrodynamics) is not continuous, but
irradiated in the form of separate portions - quanta, we can explain
the experimental facts. The energy of each quantum is directly
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 7-11
proportional to the frequency of the radiation; later called Planck's
constant in honor of Planck, this ratio is called the quantum of
inuence (h = 6,626 • 10–34C • sec). In 1905, Einstein extended
Planck's hypothesis to show that electromagnetic energy is not
only irradiated in portions, it is also absorbed in portions, and thus
it behaves like a particle (later called a photon). Einstein also
explained the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect, which
cannot be explained by classical electrodynamics, on the basis of
this hypothesis. Thus, the corpuscular theory of light has already
been developed to a qualitatively new level. The dualism in the
nature of light allows it to be interpreted, on the one hand, as a
stream of particles (corpuscles) and, on the other hand, as a wave
(interference, diffraction). Based on the "quantization" of
electromagnetic radiation, in 1913, N. Bor concluded that the
energy of intra-atomic processes must also change by leaps and
bounds. This result of the tube made it possible to explain
Rutherford's atomic model. Thus, in 1911, E. Rutherford created
a planetary model of the atom by experimentally studying the
scattering of alpha particles from matter. According to this model,
electrons revolve around the nucleus, and planets revolve around
the Sun. However, according to Maxwell's electrodynamics, such
an atom cannot be stable, because electrons moving in elliptical
orbits must constantly emit electromagnetic radiation, lose energy,
and fall on the nucleus in about 10 to 8 seconds. It was not possible
to explain the stability of atoms and their linear, discrete spectra
within the framework of classical laws. Bor showed the way out
of this difcult situation. According to his postulate, atoms are in
special stationary states, in which case the electrons do not radiate
energy. Radiation occurs only when moving from one stationary
state to another. The study of the collision of atoms with electrons
accelerated in an electric eld by C. Frank and H. Hertz (1913–14)
proved that the energy spectrum of atoms is discrete. For hydrogen,
the simplest atom, boron developed a quantitative theory consistent
with the experiments of the radiation spectrum. During this period,
a modern view of solid state physics began to take shape as a
condensed system consisting of a large number of particles (~
1022 cm – 3). Until 1925, solid state physics developed in two
directions: the physics of the crystal lattice and the electron physics
of crystals (mainly metals). Later, these directions merged on the
basis of quantum theory. Crystals - The idea of a multitude of
atoms arranged in space in order and balanced by the forces of
interaction was already fully formed in the early 20th century. At
the end of the 19th century, ES Fyodorov laid the foundations of
theoretical crystallography with his work in the eld of structure
and symmetry of crystals; he proved the possibility of 230
symmetry groups for crystals in 1890–91 — regular types of atoms
in a crystal lattice (Fyodorov groups). In 1907, according to
Einstein's crystal model, which was accepted as a set of quantum
harmonic oscillators of the same frequency, the decrease in the
heat capacity of solids, which contradicted Dulong-Pti’s law but
was observed in practice, led to a decrease in temperature? In
1912, M. Laue and his colleagues discovered the diffraction of
X-rays in crystals and conclusively conrmed that crystals have
a regular atomic structure. On the basis of this discovery, a
methodology for the experimental determination of the regularities
of the arrangement of atoms in crystals and the distance between
atoms was developed, and the method was developed by U.L.
Bregg, U.H. Bregg (1913) and G. Wolf (1913). In 1907–14, a
dynamic theory of the crystal lattice based on quantum imagery
was developed. The more complete dynamic theory, which
presents the crystal lattice as a set of interconnected quantum
oscillators of different frequencies, was further developed by P.
Debay (1912), M. Born, T. Karman (1913) and E. Schrödinger
(1914). After the discovery of the electron, the electronic theory
of metals began to develop. In this theory, the electrons inside the
metal were considered to be ordinary dilute molecular gas-like
free electrons that lled the crystal lattice and were subject to
classical Boltzmann statistics. With the help of electron theory, it
became possible to explain Ohm's and Wiedemann-French laws
(P. Drude) and the basis for the theory of dispersion of light in
crystals. However, many facts could not be explained with the
help of classical electronic theory. Thus, the temperature
dependence of the specic resistance of metals, as well as the fact
that the share of electron gas in the heat capacity of metals is
insignicant, remained unexplained. It was only after the
application of quantum mechanics to these issues that these dark
points were claried. In the 1920s, the movement of microparticles,
as well as many physical phenomena occurring in macroscopic
objects, consistently, logically explained, and developed into a
modern theory (theory). The basis of quantum theory was the idea
of quantization by Planck-Einstein-Bohr, as well as the hypothesis
put forward by L. de Broglie (1924) - corpuscular dualism is not
only about electromagnetic radiation (photons), but also about
the hypothesis of matter in general. According to this hypothesis,
all microparticles (electrons, protons, atoms, etc.) have not only
corpuscular properties but also wave properties: each particle has
a specic wavelength λ (λ = h / p), where h is the plan frequency
(ν = E / h, E is the energy of the particle) corresponds to the wave.
De Broglie waves describe free particles. Experimental
observations of electron diffraction in 1927 proved that they had
a wave nature. Later, diffraction was observed in other
microparticles (including molecules) (see Diffraction of Particles).
1929 Solvey Conference with the participation of prominent
physicists such as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Max
Planck, Hendrik Lawrence, Niels Bohr, Maria Curie, Erwin
Schrödinger and Paul Dirac. In 1925, W. Heisenberg and M. Born
established matrix mechanics that explained quantum phenomena
with the help of a special mathematical apparatus. In 1926,
Schrödinger, who tried to explain the discrete energy spectrum
of the atom by wave equations, obtained the basic equation of
quantum mechanics. In 1925, C.Y. Ulenbeck and S.A. Gaudsmith
discovered by spectroscopic experiments that an electron had a
specic moment of motion - a spin (as well as a specic spin
magnetic moment associated with it). The size of the spin is usually
expressed in units ћ = h / 2π; with this unit the spin of the electron
is equal to 1/2. V. Pauli obtained the equation of motion of a non-
relativistic electron, taking into account the interaction of the
magnetic field with the magnetic field in the external
electromagnetic eld and the spin magnetic moment. He also
formulated the principle (Pauli's principle) that only one electron
can be located in a quantum state (1925). Pauli's principle was of
great importance in the construction of the quantum theory of
systems consisting of many particles. Thus, with his help, it was
possible to explain the laws of electron lling of electron shells
and layers in multi-electron atoms, and thus Mendeleev's theory
of the periodic table of elements. In 1928, P.A.M. Dirac received
the quantum relativistic equation of electron motion. It follows
from this equation that the electron has a spin. On the basis of
this equation, in 1931, Dirac announced the existence of a positron
(the rst antiparticle), and in 1932, K.D. was discovered
experimentally over the years). Along with quantum mechanics,
quantum statistics also developed. In 1924, the Indian physicist
S. Boze applied the principles of quantum statistics to a photon
with spin 1 to express Planck's formula for the energy spectrum
of equilibrium radiation. In 1926, Dirac and the Italian physicist
E. Fermi showed that a different statistical distribution law - Fermi-
Dirac statistics - should be applied to electrons and other particles
with 1/2 spin. Quantum statistics played a very important role in
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 8-11
the development of solid state physics. In 1929, I.E. Tamm
proposed to look at the thermal motion of crystal atoms as a
collection of quasi-particles - phonons. Such an approach explained
the decrease in the heat capacity of metals with decreasing
temperature at low temperatures according to the law ~ T3, and
also showed that the main reason for the electrical resistance of
metals is the scattering of electrons from phonons. In 1928, the
German physicist A. Sommerfeld used the Fermi-Dirac distribution
function to explain the transfer processes in metals. This step gave
impetus to the development of quantum theory of kinetic
phenomena (electrical and thermal conductivity, galvanomagnetic,
thermoelectric, etc. effects) on solids. According to Pauli's
principle, even at absolute zero, the total energy of the electrons
inside such a metal is different from zero that is, in the unexcited
state, all energy levels start at zero and reaches a certain maximum
value of the electron (Fermi). Using this model, Sommerfeld
explained the small contribution of electrons to the heat capacity
of metals: when heated, only excited electrons near the Fermi
level contribute to the heat capacity. In 1928–34, F. Blox, H.A.
Bethe, and L. Brilluen developed a theory of the zonal energy
structure of crystals, and with the help of this theory the electrical
properties of dielectrics and metals were easily explained. In 1928,
YI Frankel and Heisenberg showed that ferromagnetism occurs
on the basis of the interaction of quantum exchange; in 1932–33,
the French physicist L. Neel and, independently, L.D. Landau
predicted the existence of antiferromagnetism. Kamerlinq-Onnes
tәrәndәn ifratkeçiriciliyin (1911) vә P.L.Kapitsa tәrәndәn maye
heliumda ifrataxıcılığın (1938) kәş kvant statistikasında yeni
metodların inkişafına tәkan verdi: Landau tәrәndәn ifrataxıcılığın
fenomenoloji nәzәriyyәsi (1941), daha sonra isә Landau vә
V.L.Ginzburq tәrәndәn ifratkeçiriciliyin (1950) fenomenoloji
nәzәriyyәsi was created. The application of new, powerful
computational methods to the statistical quantum theory of
multiparticle systems in the 1950s by J. Bardin, L. Cooper, J.
Schriffer (USA) and NN Bogolyubov (USSR). In the second
quarter of the 20th century, signicant progress was made in the
study of the structure of the atomic nucleus and in the development
of elementary particle physics. Before Rutherford's discovery of
the atomic nucleus, radioactivity was discovered in the late 19th
century (A. Beckerel, P. and M. Curie, France), and isotopes were
discovered in the early 20th century. In 1919, Rutherford was able
to convert stable nitrogen nuclei into oxygen nuclei by bombarding
them with α-particles. The discovery of the neutron by J. Chadwick
in 1932 led to the creation of the modern proton-neutron model
of the nucleus (D.D. Ivanenko, Heisenberg). In 1934, French
physicists I. and F. Jolio-Curie discovered the phenomenon of
artificial radioactivity. The discovery of charged particle
accelerators has made it possible to study various nuclear reactions.
Nuclear ssion was discovered. In 1939–45, for the rst time, a
chain reaction of 235U nuclei resulted in the release of nuclear
energy and the creation of the atomic bomb. Along with the
development of nuclear physics, the rapid development of
elementary particle physics began in the 1930s. Thus, muons,
pi-mesons, K-mesons, and the rst hyperons were discovered. As
the power of charged particle accelerators increased, so did the
discovery of new elementary particles, their properties, and the
study of their interaction properties. Along with many new
particles, extremely unstable particles with an average lifespan
of 10–22–10–24 seconds — resonances — have been discovered
and the existence of two types of neutrinos has been experimentally
conrmed. The interchangeability of elementary particles showed
that they were not necessarily elementary and that they had a
complex internal structure. A coherent, logical explanation of the
elementary particles and the mechanisms of their interaction is
the work of a quantum eld theory that has not yet reached the
level of maturity. In 1917, Einstein, who put forward the quantum
theory of the process of radiation, showed the possibility of a
mechanism of forced radiation. Intensive research in the eld of
generation and amplication of electromagnetic waves by quantum
systems in the 1950s NG Basov, AM Prokhorov and independently
Ch. Towns (these three scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1964). led to the development of the laser, a quantum generator
operating in the visible light range. The creation of modern
accelerators and the improvement of methods for observing
elementary particles led to the emergence of high-energy physics.
The development of high-energy physics increased condence in
the validity of the hypothesis that hadrons were composed of
quarks and that strong interactions were carried by gluons, and
that experiments with weak interactions W ± (1982) and Zº (1983)
were discovered in practice.
Physics in Modern Times (Development of Microphysics)
According to the modern level of knowledge, elementary or
fundamental particles are called particles that do not consist of
simpler particles. Numerous experiments have revealed 12 elemental
fermions (leptons) and 4 massive vector bosons, notwithstanding
the corresponding anti-particles. Elemental fermions - 6 species
or fragrances, quarks are combined in 3 generations and form the
"bricks" of the world. According to the connement, quarks do
not exist in the form of freely isolated particles; they combine in
the form of hadrons (nucleons and mesons) through gluons. Thus,
vector bosons "bricks" play the role of "glue" to each other, that
is, bosons transmit fundamental interactions. Although there is a
hypothesis of the existence of "protocquarks" or preons in nature,
it has not yet been conrmed. For quarks, a one-dimensional wire
theory model is usually adopted. At high energies, a new state of
matter is formed - quark-gluon plasma. One of the main problems
of microphysics that Einstein still wanted to solve was the creation
of a single eld theory that combines all four fundamental types
of interactions known in the universe: gravity, electromagnetic,
weak and strong interactions. The emergence of such a theory
could be a fundamental breakthrough in all areas of science. At
present, a well-tested theory of weak interactions and quantum
chromodynamics describing the strong interaction quark-gluon
hypothesis has been developed. In 1964, Peter Higgs proposed the
idea of a new boson with a mass of 125 GeV. The combination of
the quark-gluon hypothesis and the theory of strong interactions
are called the standard model. The main component of this model
is the Higgs boson, the existence of which was predicted by
P. Higgs in 1964, with a mass of 125 GeV. The Higgs boson
was experimentally observed in July 2012 at the Large Hadron
Collider (CERN); the result was conrmed in March 2013. The
fundamental role of this boson is that, according to modern ideas,
the mechanism of the formation of the mass of elementary particles
is a spontaneous violation of symmetry as a result of interaction
with the Higgs boson. The most pressing issue in microphysics is
the subsequent unication of all fundamental interactions and the
transition from the standard model to the Great Consolidation, in
which the existing particles - fermions and bosons - are described
in a unied manner. Within this generalization, the baryon
asymmetry of the universe, the small rest mass of the neutrino,
the quantization of the electric charge, as well as the existence of
a magnetic monopoly predicted by P. Dirac, can be explained. The
most convincing evidence in favor of a large compound would be
the discovery of a very rare event, the splitting of a proton (the
lifespan of a proton is estimated at 1.6 ∙ 1033 years) into positrons
and -mesons. One of the important directions in microphysics is
the supersymmetric expansion of the standard model, in which a
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022 Volume 4(4): 9-11
boson is placed on it, which is supersymmetric for each fermion.
New particles must have a very large mass, which makes them
difcult to observe. However, in 2015, a new particle with a mass
of 700 QeV split into 2 photons in the Large Hadron Collider,
which may indicate the existence of a supersymmetric partner of
the Higgs boson.
Development of Macrophysics
Macrophysics is currently the most intensive eld of physics
due to its large number of objects and the maximum number of
practical applications. Atomic nuclear physics can be attributed
to macrophysics, because in many respects, the nucleus of
especially heavy and extreme chemical elements is similar to a
liquid droplet. Articial synthesis of heavy nuclei is one of the
main problems of modern macrophysics; for 2016, elements with
atomic numbers up to 118 were synthesized. Also, exotic nuclei
of unusual (non-spherical) shape, hadron atoms (for example,
an atom consisting of a proton and an antiproton), nuclei with a
density greater than that of an ordinary nucleus (≈ 3 ∙ 1017 kg /
m3), and so on is studied. Controlled thermonuclear fusion (ITS)
is a problem of great practical interest. Its solution can meet
people's energy needs. For 2016, in 1950, I.Y. Tamm and A.D.
The plasma temperature in the weave proposed by Sakharov is
approx. 1.5 ∙107 K and the research is being carried out within
the framework of the International Experimental Thermonuclear
Reactor ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor, Kadarash, France; planned commissioning period - 2025)
project. Another direction in the development of macrophysics
is low-tempo physics. Macroscopic quantum phenomena such
as superconductivity in liquid 4He (P.L. Kapitsa, 1938) and
superconductivity in Hg (H. Kamerling-Onnes, 1911) have been
studied. In 1986, high-temperature (T≈100 K) superconductivity
was discovered (Y.Q. Bednorts, K.A. Müller). At present, the
main issue is the purchase of superconductors with a crisis
temperature of T≈ 300 K (room temperature). Its solution could
revolutionize energy. Rev.1970s. A unique anisotropic magnetic
superconducting liquid at temperatures of 300 μK and a superheat
3He with liquid crystalline properties have been discovered. The
record low temperature range for 2016 is picoquelvin (10–12 K).
In modern times, the interests of macrophysics have focused on
the study of other different (practically unlimited) forms of matter
(soft matter) from regular and irregular (both homogeneous and
alloyed) solids (hard matter). Substances of this type include
liquid crystals, polymers (including biopolymers), colloids and
other dispersed systems, metallic hydrogen, graphene, graphene,
fullerons and various heterostructures (J. Alfyorov, 2000; H.
Alfyorov, H. Alfyorov). An example can be given. Such physical
objects are used to create the systems needed to process and
describe information, as well as the elements of integrated circuits.
In the manufacture of nanoelectronic elements, materials with
high electrical conductivity and mechanical properties - new
allotropic modications of carbon, such as fullerons exhibiting
semiconducting properties (when they are alloyed, have
superconducting properties) are studied. Of particular interest is
graphene, a two-dimensional modication of carbon as a material
that could stimulate the future development of nanoelectronics - a
structure consisting of an atomic thickness layer with a hexagonal
two-dimensional crystal lattice - because of its high thermal
conductivity and high thermal conductivity. Obtaining Bose-
Einstein condensate (BEC), one of the (new) aggregate states
of matter - boson gas cooled to absolute zero temperature (T
<10–6 K), storage in magnetic traps (H. Demelt, V. Pauli, Nobel
Prize, 1989) and the study of their physical properties plays an
important role in the modern development of macrophysics; In
2010, it was possible to observe the BEC of photons in a limited
optical resonator. These achievements became possible after the
development of methods for "capturing" and cooling atoms by
laser beams (K. Cohen-Tannuci, Nobel Prize, 1997). Purposeful
selection of different physical properties of layers in multilayer
structures - for example, spintronics (sequence of magnetic and
non-magnetic layers), Josephon electronics (sequence of normal
and superconducting layers; see Josephon effect), molecular
electronics (molecular electronics). It is possible to create a new
type of electronic devices based on. A new type of associative
memory device that can be used in quantum computers can be
created from a two-dimensional Josephon network of contacts.
Macroscopic quantum effects are manifested in all nanostructured
functional electronic devices. In the future, it will be possible to
reach quantum limits where only one electron, one spin, energy,
magnetic ux, and so on. let a quantum “work”. Within these
limits, the basic parameters of prospective computers will be
1THs many times higher than the corresponding parameters of
current computers - processing speed (speed), information write
frequency ~ 103 Tbit • cm – 2 - times, energy consumption.
Development of Mega Physics
The development of mega physics, although paradoxical at rst
glance, is closely connected with the problems of microphysics,
above all with the cosmological problem - the problem of the
creation and renaissance scenario of the universe. At present, the
idea of the Big Bang with the next stage of ination is widely
accepted. In the earliest stages of evolution (less than 10–3
seconds), as well as in less than 10–
35
seconds, the problem of the
hypothetical state of the initial cosmological singularity remains
unsolved. It is in these dimensions that mega physics merges with
microphysics, so that the cosmological problem can be solved by
the construction of quantum gravity. The cosmological hypothesis
is very difcult to test experimentally (perhaps not at all) due to the
excessive amount of energy required. For example, Planck's energy
is 1019 GeV, while the largest modern accelerator (Large Hadron
Collider) has a total of about 1.4 • 104 GeV. The most important
problem of mega physics is the experimental verication of the
existence of gravitational waves predicted by the general theory
of relativity. At present, this hypothesis is fully conrmed with
the help of the LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave
Observatory) device, released in 2002 in the United States. Many
astrophysical objects - the nuclei of neutron stars and pulsars,
extreme new stars, black holes, quasars and galaxies, and, in
recent years, new exotic (unusual) objects with a thickness of 10–2
cm. It includes the study of the physical nature of cosmic wires,
which are made up of strings stretched between the boundaries
of the universe. The relatively recent problem of both mega- and
microphysics, the dark matter responsible for the rapid expansion
of the universe, and especially the dark energy hypothesis (since
the late 1990s), is a serious problem.
The Role of Physics in the Modern World
The development of physics has radically changed not only the
shape of the natural-scientic landscape of the world, but also the
material and technical support of modern civilization. The close
connection of physics with other branches of natural science led
to the development of astronomy, geology, chemistry, biology,
and so on. Penetrated other natural sciences with very deep
roots. A number of frontier disciplines emerged: astrophysics,
geophysics, chemical physics, biophysics, medical physics,
molecular biology, and so on. Methods of physical research were
crucial for all the natural sciences. Physics lays the foundation
for the main directions of technology. Construction equipment,
hydraulic engineering, electrical engineering and energy, radio
engineering, lighting engineering, military equipment, electronics,
Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169
J Phy Opt Sci, 2022
computer technology have developed on the basis of physics. The
development of technology, in turn, has a great impact on the
perfection of experimental physics. Electrical engineering, radio
engineering, etc. without the development of elementary particle
accelerators, semiconductor devices, and so on. It would not be
possible to create.
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Copyright: ©2022 Gunel Imanova. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author and source are credited.
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