Cuckolded Fathers Rare in Human Populations
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Figure 1 Three Genetic Genealogical Approaches that Allow Calculation of Past Extra-Pair Paternity (EPP) Rates in Human Populations. (A) In the ‘genealogical pair’ method [7,8], the EPP rate is estimated directly from mismatches in Y chromosomal genotypes between pairs of individuals that based on genealogical evidence share a common paternal ancestor (N = number of genealogically related pairs analysed). First developed by Strassmann et al.[8], this method was later extended by Larmuseau et al.[7] to take into account the occurrence of multiple non-paternity events within one genealogy. (B) In the ‘surname’ method [9], the EPP rate is estimated indirectly from mismatches in Y chromosomal genotypes across individuals that share the same surname. For this method to work, surnames must be patrilineally inherited and each surname must have only one single origin. EPP rates are estimated based on the proportion of individuals whose Y chromosome maps outside (red) the monophyletic surname cluster (broken line) in a median-joining phylogenetic network, taking into account the historical age of the surname, the rate of surname adoption (caused, e.g., by adopting a stepfather's name), and occasional matrilineal surname transmission (size of circles = incidence of particular genotype, N = number of surnames analysed). (C) In the ‘admixture’ method [7], the EPP rate is estimated from the change in the distribution of Y chromosomal genotypes (pie charts) in a historical migrant population (right) and a resident population (left) before (top) and after (bottom) n generations of admixture. High EPP would result in the disappearance of any differences in genotype frequencies between both sets of individuals. Residents and historical migrants are distinguished on the basis of authentic surnames typical for each region. Genotype frequencies before admixture are for the resident population estimated from a part of the population where no immigration took place, whereas for the historical migrants it is that of the present-day source population.
