Representations of War and Terrorism, Appunti di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Representations of War and Terrorism e più Appunti in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! Riassunto “Representations of War and Terrorism” Parte 1: Introduction to ideology and language LANGUAGE: is an essential element of communication where are present all forms of SOCIAL INTERACTION between individuals and cultural aspects of society. IDEOLOGY: a system of values and beliefs, shared by a group of people. However, the word “ideology” often has a negative connotation: Ex. The ideology of TOTALITARISM regimes (Fascism, Nazism) are in opposition to ideology based on CAPITALISM and DEMOCRACY • Current definitions of ideology have their roots in the work of Karl Marx: it has a “regulating function” and it determines and legitimises the organization of power relations within society HEGEMONY: it means leadership by a dominant group or class over society and its institutions (Antonio Gramsci) Now we live in an age characterised by THE END OF IDEOLOGY because CAPITALISM has triumphed and LIBERAL DEMOCRACY is the world’s dominant political system An example of ideology today is RELIGION 1.2 Language use and context: the concept of discourse DISCOURSE: is the connection between language and context or, more specifically, between text and society. Discourse can be used to refer a system of language use and other meaning-making practices (ex. Behaviour, dress and customary habits) that forms ways of thinking about social reality. It is also about who we are and what is our social identity. DISCOURSE COMMUNITY: is a social group with members that share ideas, beliefs, goals, rules, behaviours and use a special kind of language • The most famous definition of discourse is the one given by Michel Foucault. According to him, discourse is a way of defining, structuring and signifying certain areas of knowledge and social practice. He calls such areas “objects” (madness=follia). According to Fairclough Discourse has 3 constitutive aspects: • Social identities • Social relationship • Knowledge and belief (cosa noi sappiamo e cosa in cui crediamo, per esempio religioni, ideologia politica) Texts realise these 3 aspects and include them in varying degrees, and in more or less explicit ways 1.3 Relationships between texts, relationship between discourses When a text is analysed for understand intersection of that text and cultural and social aspects there are 2 complementary analytical dimensions: • Linguistic analysis, elements and structures from the linguistic system • Intertextual analysis, texts depend on resource made available In fact each text is “constructed” in relation to other text. 1.4 Intertextuality INTERTEXTUALITY: we speak of intertextuality when a text contains traces of prior texts. It has a lot of applications and meanings • Prior text may be quoted, paraphrased and referred to in the new text; • Intertextuality is always a process of RECONTEXTUALISATION; • Intertextuality is inevitable because it would be impossible to think of a text as something absolutely unique, without relationship with other texts; There are 2 forms of intertextuality: 1. Manifest intertextuality, is the explicit use of a part or whole text into a new one; 2. Constitutive intertextuality, is the incorporation in a text of elements (genre-style-register) which are not naturally identifiable as typical of the text; The most obvious (evidente) example of manifest intertextuality is QUOTATION, which is a section of an old text placed in a new one Si effettua: DECONTESTUALIZZAZIONE dal testo originale RICONTESTUALIZZAZIONE nel nuovo testo 1.4 Social semiotics and language functions Halliday speaks of LANGUAGE in terms of “SOCIAL SEMIOTIC”, in other words an instrument to create and communicate meanings. In fact: • Meaning are ENCODED in language • Language is not an entity separate from society but is a very important part of it REGISTER: the group of semantic resources available in a determinate situation or social context METAFUNCTION: Halliday proposes 3 meaning: • Ideational metafunction, is the way the speaker expresses his or her perception of the real world • Interpersonal metafunction, consists of the expression of the relationship writer reader • Textual metafunction One of the key functions of language is the ability for speaker to describe the reality choosing a set of linguistic opinion. Language may be manipulated to confirm to a speaker’s ideology 1.5 Transitivity TRANSITIVITY: is the set of LINGUISTIC DEVICES (insieme di dispositivi linguistici) which release (esprime) our experience of the world in language. • Transitivity is important for understanding how discourse and ideology are codified into texts • Analysis of transitivity is crucial to analysis of media and political text • A common feature of all modern American President is PREOCCUPATION FOR RELIGION • The right President must be: • A loyal family man • Moral leader • Interesting to religion “IN GOD WE TRUST” motto can be read in 1$ banknotes • The final sentence of many important Presidential Speeches since 1776 is “GOD BLESS AMERICA”, rhetorical artifice that connect religion with American power and identity • The Presidents always use religion to UNIFY THE NATION • God is always invoked by BUSH as the GUIDING PRINCIPLE OF HIS POLICIES especially in the month and year after 11/settembre • For BUSH: RELIGION / POLITICS - GOD / NATION are IMPOSSIBLE to separate! • The moment of crisis generated by the events of 9/11 given to Bush the possibility to use RELIGION for justify political and military action “WAR ON TERROR” • BUSH IDEOLOGY is incorporated in a NEOCONSERVATORISM, ideology originating from the religious Right (militant evangelic group) 2.1 Intertextuality and Ideology in Bush’s discourse Bush’s language has been so successful because in his texts he has developed an intertextual dialogue with OLD TEXTS: so his texts became part of HISTORY = QUOTATION • The popularity of BUSH’S VALUES depends on they can appear NEW and INNOVATIVE, but they are in a “OLD” way Is possible define 2 kinds of ideology in Bush's discourses: • The ideology of Christianity • The ideology of America’s history One of the most famous and ideologically term used by Bush is “AXIS OF DEVIL”: this term indicated those nations such as Iraq, Iran, South Korea that supported terrorist activities threatening American security. • This term has placed an influential role in creating the problem of terrorism and the question to go to war with Iraq Bush constructs a NARRATIVE OF WAR where the new events are in relation with OLD HISTORY (intertextual reference) comparing THE PROBLEM OF TERRORISM with the situation of 2° WORLD WAR • Another important keyword with intertextual implication is CRUSADE (“This crusade, this war on terrorism”), Christian expedition against the Muslim. The word CRUSADE become part of the CHRISTIAN FUNDAMENTALISM • Another word that represent Bush’s ideology is MISSION, used in the discourse of religion and war, this word can be read as both military and religious way • Bush favourite source of QUOTATION is the BIBLE. • The first quotation occurs in the speech made by Bush on TV the very evening after the 9/11 attack the message is directed to friends of the victim and America in general • The second quotation from Bible occurs in the speech delivered by Bush as he declared “mission accomplished” in Iraq, on May 1, 2003 the message is directed to American soldiers Bush doesn’t use the biblical quotations for rhetorical purposes (scopi retorici) but the OLD TEXT confer new meaning to the NEW EVENTS! • The quotations are basically rewritten and adapted to the specific context of America’s “WAR ON TERROR” 2.1 The ideational meaning of Bush’s war language We have looked that there are different WORDS used to define the same aspect of reality, but depending on the SPEAKER’S IDEOLOGY PEOPLE / IRAQ / SECURITY / WEAPONS other recurrent words • AMERICA: is the most recurrent nouns, which gives a clear indication of the PATRIOTIC IDEOLOGY in the speeches of Bush • TERRORISM: Bush uses this term for those people responsible for the events of 9/11. Now this term would be extended to all of America’s enemies. The tragic events of 11/9 and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have added new significance to the word “terrorism”. Bush developed a synonym of “terrorist”: • Those who oppose freedom; • Murderers (assassini); • Dangerous killer; • Another important point of Bush’s IDEOLOGY is the DICHOTOMY: “WE vs THEY” AMERICA vs TERRORIST In an interview after 9/11 Bush used this metaphor: Darkness is associated to TERRORIST and with EVIL Light has a positive value and is associated with AMERICA • FREEDOM: is another keyword in the President Language. Freedom and Liberty are the heart of the founding myth of the United States “America is the land of free” / The most important monument is “Statue of Liberty” Bush RECONTESTUALIZES the words “FREEDOM” and “LIBERTY”: • They are used to promote uniqueness (unicità) in the sense of that America is a chosen nation • They are used to promote exclusion • FREEDOM in Bush’s speech is usually combinate with other terms: Security / Peace / Life / Tolerance • A taxonomic organization of BUSH’S VOCABULARY consists of two classes of nouns: 1. The group of nouns associated with the word FREEDOM; 2. The group of nouns associated with the word VIOLENCE;