Personality and Prejudice: A Meta-Analysis and Theoretical Review
Abstract
Despite a substantial literature examining personality, prejudice, and related constructs such as Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), there have been no systematic reviews in this area. The authors reviewed and meta-analyzed 71 studies (N = 22,068 participants) investigating relationships between Big Five dimensions of personality, RWA, SDO, and prejudice. RWA was predicted by low Openness to Experience but also Conscientiousness, whereas SDO was predicted by low Agreeableness and also weakly by low Openness to Experience. Consistent with a dual-process motivational model of ideology and prejudice, the effects of Agreeableness on prejudice were fully mediated by SDO, and those of Openness to Experience were largely mediated by RWA. Finally, the effects of Agreeableness and Openness to Experience were robust and consistent across samples, although subtle moderating factors were identified, including differences in personality inventory (NEO Personality Inventory—Revised vs. Big Five Inventory), differences across prejudice domain, and cross-cultural differences in Conscientiousness and Neuroticism. Implications for the study of personality and prejudice are discussed.
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1.
1. Although the Big Five personality dimensions are relatively independent of one another, there can be weak to moderate correlations between them, which might have influenced the effects obtained here. Thus, we also computed partial correlations between each of the Big Five factors with SDO and RWA while controlling for the other four Big Five personality dimensions for the samples for which data were available (k = 19 studies, n = 4,759 participants). The association between Agreeableness and SDO remained negative and moderate in magnitude (r = —.32, 95% CI ± .03) when controlling for the other Big Five personality dimensions. This association remained comparable when also controlling for RWA (r = —.33, 95% CI ± .03). The weak negative relationship between Openness to Experience and SDO remained comparable when controlling for other dimensions of personality (r = —.23, 95% CI ± .02), although this association was substantially reduced when also controlling for RWA (r = —.11, 95% CI ± .02). This indicates, therefore, that when the unique association between personality and SDO that is not shared with RWA is examined, SDO is clearly associated with low Agreeableness and has only minimal association with the other four Big Five dimensions. The negative association between Openness to Experience and RWA remained negative and moderate in magnitude when controlling for the other Big Five personality dimensions (r = —.39, 95% CI ± .03). The weak positive association between Conscientiousness and RWA also remained comparable when controlling for other personality dimensions (r = .17, 95% CI ± .03), and moreover, both of these associations were unaffected when also controlling for SDO (r = —.35, 95% CI ± .02, and r = .18, 95% CI ± .03, respectively). The partial correlations for Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Agreeableness with RWA when controlling for SDO were negligible.
2.
2. A number of issues regarding how to most appropriately test for mediation in meta-analysis remain unresolved (see Shadish, 1996, for an early review that remains relevant). Some researchers opt, as we have here, to compare partial correlations between the independent and dependent variables, controlling for the proposed mediator separately for each study, and then calculate the average partial across studies (e.g., Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). This approach allows a comparison of the difference between the average bivariate correlation and the average partial correlation controlling for third variables, which can provide an indicator of the degree to which the association between the independent and dependent variable is a function of the proposed mediator(s). However, results of this type of analysis must be interpreted with caution, because it is difficult to provide a precise test of the significance of the difference between the average bivariate and average partial correlation. In some cases, differences between bivariate and partial correlations may also overestimate the size of the indirect effect. An alternative that has also been used in the literature (e.g., Glasman & Albarracín, 2007) is to calculate an average correlation matrix on the basis of all available studies (typically with degrees of freedom calculated using the total number of participants) and then conduct regression or path analyses using this average matrix to calculate a Sobel's z test for the indirect effect. One thing to be aware of with this approach, however, is that analyses based on the aggregate (cross-study) correlation matrix do not account for differences in the variability of the sampled r values and therefore may not accurately estimate error. Pending resolution of how to best test for mediation using meta-analytic data, we opted for a comparison of bivariate and partial correlations. However, we also reran all analyses using regressions conducted on the aggregate correlation matrix from the k = 9 studies (n = 2,479) for which data were available. Not surprisingly, results using this alternative approach yielded extremely similar estimates. The association between low Agreeableness and prejudice was mediated significantly by SDO (Sobel's z = 12.99, p < .01, β for indirect effect = —.12). The association between low Openness to Experience and prejudice was mediated significantly by RWA (Sobel's z = 10.98, p < .01, β for indirect effect = —.08). The alternative mediating effects, in contrast, were extremely minimal, although also significant. Agreeableness had an extremely weak indirect effect on prejudice mediated by RWA (Sobel's z = 3.81, p < .01, β for indirect effect = .02), and Openness to Experience also had an extremely weak indirect effect on prejudice mediated by SDO (Sobel's z = 2.53, p < .05, β for indirect effect = —.02).
3.
3. We conducted additional regression analyses testing for specific differences across the two European nations for which we had a large sample of studies (Belgium, contrast coded —1, and Sweden, contrast coded 1). The associations between Conscientiousness and SDO and between Conscientiousness and RWA did not differ across these two European nations (β = .02, z = 0.87, p = 0.38, and β = .00, z = 0.04, p = .97, respectively), which provided support for the viability of combining effect sizes across different European countries in tests comparing samples collected in Europe with those collected in North America.
4.
4. We reran these regression analyses testing for specific differences in the association of personality with racism (coded 1) and sexism (coded —1). The association between each of the five dimensions of personality with prejudice did not differ when we compared specifically between studies assessing racism and those assessing sexism (z scores < 1.5). In particular, the association between Agreeableness and prejudice did not differ across measures of racism and sexism (β = —.01, z = 0.26, p =.80), nor did the association between Openness to Experience and prejudice (β = —.05, z = —1.49, p = .14). Thus, the associations of low Agreeableness and low Openness to Experience with prejudice were significantly stronger when assessing generalized prejudice, although these dimensions of personality exhibited comparable (weaker) associations with specific measures of prejudice referring to ethnicity and gender.
5.
5. The issue of whether personality traits should be seen as purely behavioral dispositions or more broadly as encompassing any relatively stable individual differences is one that still generates some disagreement. McCrae and Costa (1990), for example, defined traits as “dimensions of individual differences in tendencies to show consistent patterns of thought, feelings, and actions” (p. 23), and, as noted, the NEO-PI-R therefore does include some clearly social attitudinal items. More typically, however, it is argued that this is undesirable, because it is likely to blur very important conceptual and empirical distinctions between traits and other stable individual differences, such as that between traits and values or generalized attitudes (e.g., Bilsky & Schwartz, 1994; Duriez & Soenens, 2006; Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, & Knafo, 2002).
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