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'{{EngvarB|date=February 2019}}{{Short description|How societies view, stigmatize or like homosexuality}} {{use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}[[File:Societal attitudes towards homosexuality 2013.svg|thumb|450px|[[Pew Global Attitudes Project]] 2013: Should homosexuality be accepted in society? Percentage of responders that answered that it should be accepted: {{div col|colwidth=22em}} {{legend|#b90080|81–90%}} {{legend|#640091|71–80%}} {{legend|#6400ff|61–70%}} {{legend|#419bb9|51–60%}} {{legend|#005a00|41–50%}} {{legend|#007d55|31–40%}} {{legend|#7d7d55|21–30%}} {{legend|#7d5555|11–20%}} {{legend|#4b001d|1–10%}} {{legend|#c0c0c0|No data}} {{div col end}}]] '''Societal attitudes toward homosexuality''' vary greatly across different cultures and historical periods, as do attitudes toward sexual desire, activity and relationships in general. All cultures have their own [[sexual norm|values regarding appropriate and inappropriate sexuality]]; some sanction [[Homosexuality|same-sex love and sexuality]], while others may disapprove of such activities in part.<ref>{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Stephen O. |title=Homosexualities |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2000}}</ref> As with [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]] behaviour, different sets of prescriptions and proscriptions may be given to individuals according to their [[gender]], age, [[social status]] or [[social class]]. Homosexuals only get in everyone else's face with their pathological lies and disgusting predatory lives. In modern times, any child can see that homosexuals are the principal fascistic enemy threat against our families, and against our freedom in the first and second amendments. Therefore most of us can only applaud the fact that society has begun the long overdue task of beating their sickening hides to a bloody pulp. Many of the world's cultures have, in the past, considered procreative sex within a recognized relationship to be a sexual norm—sometimes exclusively so, and sometimes alongside norms of same-sex love, whether passionate, intimate or sexual. Some sects within some [[religion]]s, especially those influenced by the [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic tradition]], have censured homosexual acts and relationships at various times, in some cases implementing severe punishments.<ref name="autogenerated2003">{{cite book |last=Crompton |first=Louis |title=Homosexuality and Civilization |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003}}</ref> [[Homophobic]] attitudes in society can manifest themselves in the form of [[Sexual orientation discrimination|anti-LGBT discrimination]], [[opposition to LGBT rights]], [[Anti-LGBT rhetoric|anti-LGBT hate speech]], and [[violence against LGBT people]]. Since the 1970s, much of the world has become more accepting of homosexual acts and relationships.<ref>{{cite news |author=Seth Faison |title=Door to Tolerance Opens Partway As Gay Life Is Emerging in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/02/world/door-to-tolerance-opens-partway-as-gay-life-is-emerging-in-china.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2 September 1997 |page=A8 |accessdate=8 September 2014}}</ref><!-- need more citations--> A 2017 book by Professor Amy Adamczyk based on years of mixed methods research, shows that these cross-national differences in acceptance can be explained by three factors: the strength of democratic institutions, the level of economic development, and the religious context of the places where people live.<ref name="Adamczyk">{{cite book | last=Adamczyk|first=Amy |title=Cross-National Public Opinion about Homosexuality: Examining Attitudes across the Globe| year=2017|publisher=University of California Press|pages=3–7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wly8DQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780520963597 }}</ref> The [[Pew Research Center]]'s 2013 Global Attitudes Survey "finds broad acceptance of homosexuality in North America, the European Union, and much of Latin America, but equally widespread rejection in predominantly Muslim nations and in Africa, as well as in parts of Asia and in Russia". The survey also finds "acceptance of homosexuality is particularly widespread in countries where religion is less central in people's lives. These are also among the richest countries in the world. In contrast, in poorer countries with high levels of religiosity, few believe homosexuality should be accepted by society. Age is also a factor in several countries, with younger respondents offering far more tolerant views than older ones. And while gender differences are not prevalent, in those countries where they are, women are consistently more accepting of homosexuality than men."<ref>{{cite journal |date=4 June 2013 |title=The Global Divide on Homosexuality |publisher=Pew Research Center |url=http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/06/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Homosexuality-Report-FINAL-JUNE-4-2013.pdf |accessdate=8 December 2014 |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218111304/http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/06/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Homosexuality-Report-FINAL-JUNE-4-2013.pdf |archive-date=18 February 2015 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Difficulties interpreting homosexuality in different cultures== Contemporary scholars caution against applying modern Western assumptions about [[sex]] and [[gender]] to other times and places; what looks like same-sex sexuality to a Western observer may not be "same-sex" or "sexual" at all to the people engaging in such behaviour. For example, in the [[Bugis]] cultures of [[Sulawesi]], a female who dresses and works in a masculine fashion and marries a woman is seen as belonging to a [[third gender]];<ref>Graham, Sharyn, [http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit66/bissu2.htm Sulawesi's fifth gender] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618180935/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit66/bissu2.htm |date=18 June 2006 }}, ''Inside Indonesia'', April–June 2001.</ref> to the [[Gender in Bugis society|Bugis]], their relationship is not homosexual (see [[Sexual orientation#Sexual orientation and gender identity|sexual orientation and gender identity]]). In the case of 'Sambia' (a [[pseudonym]]) boys in New Guinea who ingest the semen of older males to aid in their maturation,<ref>Herdt G., ''Sambia: Ritual and Gender in New Guinea.'' New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1987</ref> it is disputed whether this is best understood as a sexual act at all.<ref>Leila J. Rupp, "Toward a Global History of Same-Sex Sexuality", ''Journal of the History of Sexuality'' 10 (April 2001): 287–302.</ref> In recent times, scholars have argued that notions of a homosexual and heterosexual identity, as they are currently known in the Western world, only began to emerge in Europe in the mid to late 19th century.<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned, ''The Invention of Heterosexuality'' Plume, 1996</ref><ref>Andrews, Walter and Kalpakli, Mehmet, ''The Age of Beloveds: Love and the Beloved in Early Modern Ottoman and European Culture and Society'' Duke University Press, 2005 pp. 11–12</ref> Behaviors that today would be widely regarded as homosexual, at least in the West, enjoyed a degree of acceptance in around three quarters of the cultures surveyed in ''Patterns of Sexual Behavior'' (1951).<ref>Ford, C. S. & Beach, F. A. (1951). ''Patterns of Sexual Behavior''. New York: Harper and Row.</ref> ==Measuring attitudes toward homosexuality== {| style="float:right;" | cellpadding=5 | {| class="wikitable" | | colspan=3 width=100px style="text-align:center;" | [[Pew Research Center|Pew Global Attitudes Project]] 2013: "Which one of these comes closer to your opinion, number 1 or number 2?: #1 – Homosexuality should be accepted by society, #2 – Homosexuality should not be accepted by society." [http://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2014/05/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Homosexuality-Report-REVISED-MAY-27-2014.pdf] |- ! style="background:#dedede;" | Country ! style="background:#dedede;" | #1 ! style="background:#dedede;" | #2 |- | style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | '''North America''' |- |[[LGBT rights in Canada|Canada]] |80% |14% |- | [[LGBT rights in the United States|United States]] |60% |33% |- | style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | '''Europe''' |- | [[LGBT rights in Spain|Spain]] |88% |11% |- | [[LGBT rights in Germany|Germany]] |87% |11% |- | [[LGBT rights in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]] |80% |16% |- | [[LGBT rights in France|France]] |77% |22% |- | [[LGBT rights in the United Kingdom|Britain]] |76% |18% |- | [[LGBT rights in Italy|Italy]] |74% |18% |- | [[LGBT rights in Greece|Greece]] |53% |40% |- | [[LGBT rights in Poland|Poland]] |42% |46% |- | [[LGBT rights in Russia|Russia]] |16% |74% |- | style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | '''Middle East''' |- | [[LGBT rights in Israel|Israel]] |40% |47% |- | [[LGBT rights in Lebanon|Lebanon]] |18% |80% |- | [[LGBT rights in Turkey|Turkey]] |9% |78% |- | [[LGBT rights in the Palestinian territories|Palestinian ter.]] |4% |93% |- | [[LGBT rights in Egypt|Egypt]] |3% |95% |- | [[LGBT rights in Jordan|Jordan]] |3% |97% |- | [[LGBT rights in Tunisia|Tunisia]] |2% |94% |- | style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | '''Asia/Pacific''' |- | [[LGBT rights in Australia|Australia]] |79% |18% |- | [[LGBT rights in the Philippines|Philippines]] |73% |26% |- | [[LGBT rights in Japan|Japan]] |54% |36% |- | [[LGBT rights in South Korea|South Korea]] |39% |59% |- | [[LGBT rights in China|China]] |21% |57% |- | [[LGBT rights in Malaysia|Malaysia]] |9% |86% |- | [[LGBT rights in Indonesia|Indonesia]] |3% |93% |- | [[LGBT rights in Pakistan|Pakistan]] |2% |87% |- | style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | '''Latin America''' |- | [[LGBT rights in Argentina|Argentina]] |74% |21% |- | [[LGBT rights in Chile|Chile]] |68% |24% |- | [[LGBT rights in Mexico|Mexico]] |61% |30% |- | [[LGBT rights in Brazil|Brazil]] |60% |36% |- | [[LGBT rights in Venezuela|Venezuela]] |51% |42% |- | [[LGBT rights in Bolivia|Bolivia]] |43% |49% |- | [[LGBT rights in El Salvador|El Salvador]] |34% |62% |- | style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | '''Africa''' |- | [[LGBT rights in South Africa|South Africa]] |32% |61% |- | [[LGBT rights in Kenya|Kenya]] |8% |90% |- | [[LGBT rights in Uganda|Uganda]] |4% |96% |- | [[LGBT rights in Ghana|Ghana]] |3% |96% |- | [[LGBT rights in Senegal|Senegal]] |3% |96% |- | [[LGBT rights in Nigeria|Nigeria]] |1% |98% |} |} From the 1970s, academics have researched attitudes held by individuals toward lesbians, gay men and bisexuals, and the social and cultural factors that underlie such attitudes. Numerous studies have investigated the prevalence of acceptance and disapproval of homosexuality, and have consistently found correlates with various demographic, psychological, and social variables. For example, studies (mainly conducted in the United States) have found that heterosexuals with positive attitudes towards homosexuality are more likely to be female, white, young, non-religious, well-educated, politically liberal or moderate, and have close personal contact with [[coming out|out]] homosexuals.<ref> Studies finding that heterosexual men usually exhibit more hostile attitudes toward gay men and lesbians than do heterosexual women: * Herek, G. M. (1994). "Assessing heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men". In B. Greene and G. M. Herek (Eds.) ''Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues'': Vol. 1 ''Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications''. Thousands Oaks, California: Sage. * {{cite journal | last1 = Kite | first1 = M. E. | year = 1984 | title = Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuals: A meta-analytic review | url = | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2| pages = 69–81 | doi=10.1300/j082v10n01_05| pmid = 6394648 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Morin | first1 = S. | last2 = Garfinkle | first2 = E. | year = 1978 | title = Male homophobia | url = | journal = Journal of Social Issues | volume = 34 | issue = 1| pages = 29–47 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1978.tb02539.x}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Thompson | first1 = E. | last2 = Grisanti | first2 = C. | last3 = Pleck | first3 = J. | year = 1985 | title = Attitudes toward the male role and their correlates | url = | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 13 | issue = 7/8| pages = 413–427 | doi=10.1007/bf00287952}} For other correlates, see: * {{cite journal | last1 = Larson | display-authors = etal | year = 1980 | title = Heterosexuals' Attitudes Toward Homosexuality | url = | journal = The Journal of Sex Research | volume = 16 | issue = 3| pages = 245–257 | doi=10.1080/00224498009551081}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Herek | first1 = G | year = 1988 | title = Heterosexuals' Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men | url = | journal = The Journal of Sex Research | volume = 25 | issue = 4| pages = 451–477 | doi=10.1080/00224498809551476}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Kite | first1 = M. E. | last2 = Deaux | first2 = K. | year = 1986 | title = Attitudes toward homosexuality: Assessment and behavioral consequences | url = | journal = Basic and Applied Social Psychology | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 137–162 | doi=10.1207/s15324834basp0702_4}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Haddock | first1 = G. | last2 = Zanna | first2 = M. P. | last3 = Esses | first3 = V. M. | year = 1993 | title = Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 65 | issue = 6| pages = 1105–1118 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.65.6.1105}} See also: Lewis, Gregory B., "Black–White Differences in Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Gay Rights", ''Public Opinion Quarterly'', Volume 67, Number 1, pp. 59–78</ref> They are also more likely to have positive attitudes towards other minority groups<ref>Herek, G. M. (1991). "Stigma, prejudice, and violence against lesbians and gay men". In: J. Gonsiorek & J. Weinrich (Eds.), ''Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy'' (pp. 60–80). Newbury Park, Califorinia: Sage. </ref> and are less likely to support traditional gender roles.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | last1 = Kyes | first1 = K. B. | last2 = Tumbelaka | first2 = L. | year = 1994 | title = Comparison of Indonesian and American college students' attitudes toward homosexuality | url = | journal = Psychological Reports | volume = 74 | issue = 1| pages = 227–237 | doi=10.2466/pr0.1994.74.1.227| pmid = 8153216 }}</ref> Several studies have also suggested that heterosexual females' attitudes towards gay men are similar to those towards lesbians, and some (but not all) have found that heterosexual males have a more positive attitude toward lesbians.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kite | first1 = M. E. | year = 1984 | title = Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuals: A meta-analytic review | url = | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2| pages = 69–81 | doi=10.1300/j082v10n01_05| pmid = 6394648 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Millham | first1 = J. | last2 = San Miguel | first2 = C. L. | last3 = Kellogg | first3 = R. | year = 1976 | title = A factor-analytic conceptualization of attitudes toward male and female homosexuals | url = | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 2 | issue = 1| pages = 3–10 | doi=10.1300/j082v02n01_01| pmid = 1018107 }}</ref> Herek (1984) found that heterosexual females tended to exhibit equally positive or negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. The heterosexual males, however, tended to respond more negatively, or unfavorably, to gay men than lesbians.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Herek | first1 = G. M. | year = 1984 | title = Beyond 'homophobia': A social psychological perspective on attitudes toward lesbians and gay men | url = | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 10 | issue = 1/2| pages = 1–21 | doi=10.1300/j082v10n01_01| pmid = 6084028 }}</ref> [[Social psychology|Social psychologists]] such as [[Gregory Herek]] have examined underlying motivations for [[homophobia]] (hostility toward lesbians and gays), and cultural theorists have noted how portrayals of homosexuality often center around stigmatized phenomena such as AIDS, pedophilia, and gender variance. The extent to which such portrayals are [[stereotype]]s is disputed. Contemporary researchers have measured attitudes held by heterosexuals toward gay men and lesbians in a number of different ways.<ref>Commonly used scales include those designed by Herek, G. (1988), Larson et al. (1980), Kite, M. E., & Deaux, K. (1986), and Haddock et al. (1993)</ref> Certain populations are also found to accept homosexuality more than others. In the [[United States]], [[African-Americans]] are generally less tolerant of homosexuality than European or Hispanic Americans.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sexuality Now: Embracing Diversity|author=Janell L. Carroll|publisher=Wadsworth Publishing}}</ref> However, recent polls after President Barack Obama's public support of same-sex marriage shift attitudes to 59% support among African Americans, 60% among Latinos and 50 percent among White Americans.<ref name="New Poll Shows Dramatic Shifts in Public Opinion of Gay Marriage Post-Obama Announcement">{{cite news |url=http://atlantablackstar.com/2012/05/24/new-poll-shows-dramatic-shifts-in-public-opinion-of-gay-marriage-post-obama-announcement/ |title=New Poll Shows Dramatic Shifts in Public Opinion of Gay Marriage Post-Obama Announcement |work=[[Atlanta Black Star]] |date=24 May 2012 |accessdate=22 August 2013 }}</ref> [[Israelis]] were found to be the most accepting of homosexuality among [[Middle East]]ern nations and [[Israel]]i [[LGBT rights in Israel|laws and culture]] reflect that. According to a 2007 poll, a strong majority of [[Israeli Jews]] say they would accept a gay child and go on with life as usual.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3420964,00.html |title=Most Israelis would accept a gay child |author=Kobi Nahshoni |publisher=[[Ynetnews]] |date=2007-07-07}}</ref> A 2013 ''[[Haaretz]]'' poll found that most of the [[Arab citizens of Israel|Arab]] and [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] sector saw homosexuality negatively, while the majority of secular and traditional Jews say they support equal rights for gay couples.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ho |first=Spencer |date=15 December 2013 |title=Poll: 70% of Israelis support recognition for gays |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/poll-70-of-israelis-support-recognition-for-gays/ |newspaper=The Times of Israel |accessdate=31 December 2014}}</ref> Much less research has been conducted into societal attitudes toward [[bisexuality]].<ref>Herek, Gregory M. ''Heterosexuals' attitudes toward bisexual men and women in the United States'', Journal of Sex Research, Nov, 2002. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_4_39/ai_96621265 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060411090139/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_4_39/ai_96621265 |date=11 April 2006 }}</ref> What studies do exist suggest that the attitude of heterosexuals toward bisexuals mirrors their attitude toward homosexuals,<ref> * Ochs, R. (1996). "Biphobia: It goes more than two ways". In: B. A. Firestein (Ed.), ''Bisexuality: The psychology and politics of an invisible minority'' (pp. 217–239). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage * {{cite journal | last1 = Rust | first1 = P. C. | year = 2000 | title = Bisexuality: A contemporary paradox for women | url = | journal = Journal of Social Issues | volume = 56 | issue = 2| pages = 205–221 | doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00161}} * Weinberg, M. S., Williams, C. J., & Pryor, D. W. (1994). ''Dual attraction: Understanding bisexuality''. New York: Oxford University Press. * {{cite journal | last1 = Mohr | first1 = J. J. | last2 = Rochlen | first2 = A. B. | year = 1999 | title = Measuring attitudes regarding bisexuality in lesbian, gay male, and heterosexual populations | url = | journal = Journal of Counseling Psychology | volume = 46 | issue = 3| pages = 353–369 | doi=10.1037/0022-0167.46.3.353}} </ref> and that bisexuals experience a similar degree of hostility, discrimination, and violence relating to their sexual orientation as do homosexuals.<ref> * Paul, J. P., & Nichols, M. (1988). "'Biphobia' and the construction of a bisexual identity". In: [[Michael Shernoff|M. Shernoff]] & W. Scott (Eds.), ''The sourcebook on lesbian/gay health care'' (pp. 142–147). Washington, DC: National Lesbian and Gay Health Foundation. * Ochs, R. (1996). "Biphobia: It goes more than two ways". In: B. A. Firestein (Ed.), ''Bisexuality: The psychology and politics of an invisible minority'' (pp. 217–239). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage * Weinberg, M. S., Williams, C. J., & Pryor, D. W. (1994). ''Dual attraction: Understanding bisexuality''. New York: Oxford University Press. * Herek, Gillis, and Cogan (1999) found that 15% of bisexual women (n = 190) and 27% of bisexual men (n = 191) had experienced a crime against their person or property because of their sexual orientation. compared to 19% of lesbians (n = 980) and 28% of gay men (n = 898). (Gillis, J. R., & Cogan, J. C. (1999). ''Psychological sequelae of hate crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults.'' Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 945–951.) * Note: the Kaiser Family Foundation (2001) found that bisexuals reported experiencing less prejudice and discrimination, while a 1997 study of heterosexual U.S undergraduate students found that they had more negative attitudes toward bisexuals than towards lesbians and gays. Kaiser Family Foundation (2001), ''Inside-out: A report on the experiences of lesbians, gays, and bisexuals in America and the public's view on issues and politics related to sexual orientation.'' http://www.kff.org ; {{cite journal | last1 = Eliason | first1 = M. J. | year = 1997 | title = The prevalence and nature of biphobia in heterosexual undergraduate students | doi = 10.1023/A:1024527032040| journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 26 | issue = 3| pages = 317–326 | pmid=9146816}}</ref> Research (mainly conducted in the United States) show that people with more permissive attitudes on sexual orientation issues tend to be younger, well-educated, and politically liberal. Tolerant attitudes toward homosexuality and bisexuality have been increasing with time. A 2011 [[Public Policy Polling]] survey found that 48 percent of voters in the state of [[Delaware]] supported the legalization of same-sex marriage, while 47 were opposed and 5 percent were not sure.<ref>{{cite web |work=Delaware Liberal |url=http://www.delawareliberal.net/2011/02/09/large-plurality-of-delaware-supports-marriage-equality/ |title=Plurality of Delaware Supports Marriage Equality |date=9 February 2011 |accessdate=13 April 2011 }}</ref> 6 March 2011 poll by Lake Research Partners, showed that 62% in Delaware favor allowing same-sex couples to form civil unions, while 31% were opposed, and 7% were not sure.<ref>{{cite web |title=Delaware same-sex partnership support |url=http://equalitydelaware.org/uploads/BroadSupport_PressRel_EQDE_110316.pdf |work=Delaware same-sex partnership |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021173315/http://equalitydelaware.org/uploads/BroadSupport_PressRel_EQDE_110316.pdf |archivedate=21 October 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Law== {{Main|LGBT rights by country or territory}} The legal status of homosexuality varies greatly around the world. Homosexual acts between consenting adults are known to be illegal in about 70 out of the 195 countries of the world. Homosexual sex acts may be illegal, especially under [[sodomy law]]s, and where they are legal, the [[age of consent]] often differs from country to country. In some cases, homosexuals are prosecuted under vaguely worded "public decency" or morality laws. Some countries have special laws preventing certain public expressions of homosexuality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.truthdig.com/report/item/why_russia_fears_the_gay_20130626/ |title=Why Russia Fears the Gay |date=26 June 2013 |publisher=Truthdig |last=Mijnssen |first=Ivo |accessdate=17 July 2013 }}</ref> Nations or [[subnational entity|subnational entities]] may have [[List of anti-discrimination acts|anti-discrimination legislation]] in place to protect against discrimination on the basis of [[sexual orientation]] in the workplace, housing, health services and education. Some give exemptions, allowing employers to discriminate if they are a religious organisation, or if the employee works with children. {{World homosexuality laws map |align=left |size=275px}} Legal recognition of [[same-sex relationship]]s also varies greatly. Legal privileges pertaining to different-sex relationships that may be extended to same-sex couples include parenting, [[adoption]] and access to [[reproductive technology|reproductive technologies]]; [[immigration]]; spousal benefits for employees such as pensions, health funds and other services; family leave; medical rights, including hospital visitation, notification and [[power of attorney]]; [[inheritance]] when a partner dies without leaving a will; and social security and tax benefits. Same-sex couples without legal recognition may also lack access to domestic violence services, as well as mediation and arbitration over custody and property when relationships end. Some regions have laws specifically excluding same-sex couples from particular rights such as adoption. In 2001, the [[Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|Netherlands]] became the first country to recognize [[same-sex marriage]]. Since then same-sex marriages were subsequently recognized in [[Same-sex marriage in Belgium|Belgium]] (2003), [[Same-sex marriage in Spain|Spain]] (2005), [[Same-sex marriage in Canada|Canada]] (2005), [[Same-sex marriage in South Africa|South Africa]] (2006), [[Same-sex marriage in Norway|Norway]] (2009), [[Same-sex marriage in Sweden|Sweden]] (2009), [[Same-sex marriage in Portugal|Portugal]] (2010), [[Same-sex marriage in Iceland|Iceland]] (2010), [[Same-sex marriage in Argentina|Argentina]] (2010), [[Same-sex marriage in Denmark|Denmark]] (2012), [[Same-sex marriage in Brazil|Brazil]] (2013), [[Same-sex marriage in France|France]] (2013), [[Same-sex marriage in Uruguay|Uruguay]] (2013), [[Same-sex marriage in New Zealand|New Zealand]] (2013), [[Same-sex marriage in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] (2015), [[Same-sex marriage in Ireland|Ireland]] (2015), [[Same-sex marriage in the United States|the United States]] (2015), [[Same-sex marriage in Colombia|Colombia]] (2016), [[Same-sex marriage in Finland|Finland]] (2017), [[Same-sex marriage in Germany|Germany]] (2017), and [[Same-sex marriage in Australia|Australia]] (2017). [[Same-sex marriage in Austria|Austria]] and [[Same-sex marriage in Taiwan|Taiwan]] will legalise same-sex marriage in 2019, and [[Same-sex marriage in Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] in 2020. [[Same-sex marriage]] is also recognized in 12 Mexican states and the Mexican federal district of [[Mexico City]]. [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]], constituent countries of the [[Same-sex marriage in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], also legalized same-sex marriage in 2014, but it remains illegal in [[Northern Ireland]]. Armenia, Israel, and Estonia recognise but do not perform such marriages. Other legal recognition of same sex relationships (offering fewer benefits than marriage) include [[civil unions]] and [[domestic partnership]]s. ===Application of Islamic law=== {{further|Islam and homosexuality}} On the other end of the spectrum, several countries impose the death penalty for homosexual acts, per the application of some interpretations of [[Shari'a law]]. As of 2015, these include [[LGBT rights in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], [[LGBT rights in Brunei|Brunei]], [[LGBT rights in Mauritania|Mauritania]], [[LGBT rights in Sudan|Sudan]], [[LGBT rights in Iran|Iran]], [[LGBT rights in Qatar|Qatar]], [[LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]], [[LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]], [[LGBT rights in Yemen|Yemen]] and [[LGBT rights in Nigeria|northern Nigeria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/homosexuality/islam.htm |title=Homosexuality and Islam |publisher=ReligionFacts |accessdate=8 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=BuzzfeedLGBT>{{cite web|last1=Jones|first1=Saeed|title=76 Countries Where Anti-Gay Laws Are As Bad As Or Worse Than Russia's|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/saeedjones/76-countries-where-anti-gay-laws-are-as-bad-as-or-worse-than|website=buzzfeed.com|publisher=BuzzFeed LGBT|accessdate=16 February 2015}}</ref> In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution. However, the government will use other punishments – e.g., fines, jail time, and [[Flagellation|whipping]]&nbsp;– as alternatives, unless it feels that homosexuals are challenging state authority by engaging in [[LGBT social movements]].<ref name=sodomylaws.org>{{cite web|last1=Dahir|first1=Mubarak|title=Is Beheading Really the Punishment for Homosexuality in Saudi Arabia? |url=http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/saudi_arabia/saudinews19.htm|accessdate=16 February 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030207083617/http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/saudi_arabia/saudinews19.htm|archivedate=7 February 2003|date=December 2002}}</ref> {{Better source|reason=|date=October 2016}} Iran is perhaps the nation to execute the largest number of its citizens for homosexuality. Since the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic revolution]] in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts.<ref>{{cite web |author=Vexen Crabtree |date=3 January 2014 |url=http://www.vexen.co.uk/religion/homosexuality.html#Islam |title=The Battle Between Monotheism and Homosexuality: Religious Prejudice Versus Equality: Islam |accessdate=8 December 2014}}</ref> Most international human rights organizations, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the [[United Nations]] [[Human Rights Committee]] has also ruled that such laws violate the right to privacy guaranteed in the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]. Of the nations with a majority of Muslim inhabitants, many, even those with secular constitutions, continue to outlaw homosexuality, though only in a minority (Iran,<ref name=BuzzfeedLGBT/> Yemen,<ref>{{cite news |last=Hildebrandt |first=Amber |title=Gay Yemeni Activist Facing Death Threats Seeks to Stay in Canada |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2013/06/19/f-alaa-jarban-yemen-gay-activist.html |accessdate=2013-07-28 |publisher=[[CBC News]] |date=2013-06-20 }}</ref> and Afghanistan<ref>{{cite news |last=Qadiry |first=Tahir|title=Gay Afghan Defies Tradition to Expose Identity |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21426632 |accessdate=2013-07-28 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=2013-02-19 }}</ref>) is it punishable by death. Of the countries where homosexuality is illegal, only Lebanon has an internal effort to legalize it.<ref>[http://www.helem.net/ Helem<!-- Bot generated title -->]{{failed verification|date=December 2014}}<!-- this is a home page; actual pages is probably there, so find it! --></ref> Muslim countries where homosexuality is not criminalized include [[Indonesia]], the world's largest Muslim nation by population, [[Turkey]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Republic of Kosovo|Kosovo]] and [[Albania]]. ==Religion== {{Main|Homosexuality and religion}} As with social attitudes in general, religious attitudes towards homosexuality vary between and among religions and their adherents. Traditionalists among the world's major religions generally disapprove of homosexuality, and prominent opponents of social acceptance of homosexuality often cite religious arguments to support their views. Liberal currents also exist within most religions, and modern lesbian and gay scholars of religion sometimes point to a place for homosexuality among historical traditions and [[scripture]]s, and emphasise religious teachings of compassion and love. [[Abrahamic religion]]s such as [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], and various denominations of [[Christianity]] traditionally forbid sexual relations between people of the same sex and teach that such behaviour is sinful. Religious authorities point to passages in the [[Qur'an]],<ref> #[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.080 7:80–81] #[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/026.qmt.html#026.165 26:165] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813135828/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/026.qmt.html |date=13 August 2006 }}</ref> the [[Old Testament]]<ref> #[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus%2018:22;&version=16; Leviticus 18:22]</ref> and the [[New Testament]]<ref> #[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%201:26-27;&version=16; Romans 1:26–27] #[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=I%20Timothy%201:9-10;&version=16; I Timothy 1:9–10]</ref> for scriptural justification of these beliefs. Among [[Indic religions]] (also known as [[Dharma|Dharmic]] religions), including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]], teachings regarding homosexuality are less clear. Unlike in western religions, homosexuality is rarely discussed. However, most contemporary religious authorities in the various Dharmic traditions view homosexuality negatively, and when it is discussed, it is discouraged or actively forbidden.<ref> * See [[Buddhism and sexual orientation]] for pronouncements from Thai, Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist leaders. * The supreme body of Sikhism condemned homosexuality in 2005: [https://web.archive.org/web/20080622042914/http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/03/28/sikhguy-050328.html World Sikh group against gay marriage bill], [[CBC Newsworld|CBC News]], Tuesday, 29 March 2005. * Hinduism is diverse, with no supreme governing body, but the majority of [[swami]]s opposed same-sex relationships in a 2004 survey, and a minority supported them. See: [http://www.faithandthecity.org/issues/social/articles/Discussions_on_Dharma%20.shtml "Discussions on Dharma"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929021150/http://www.faithandthecity.org/issues/social/articles/Discussions_on_Dharma%20.shtml |date=29 September 2011 }}, by Rajiv Malik, in ''Hinduism Today''. October–November–December 2004. </ref> Ancient religious texts such as the [[Vedas]] often refer to people of a [[third gender]], who are neither female nor male. Some see this third gender as an ancient parallel to modern western lesbian, gay, [[transgender]] and [[intersex]] identities. However, this third sex is usually negatively valued as a pariah class in ancient texts.<ref>Gyatso, Janet (2003). "One Plus One Makes Three: Buddhist Gender Conceptions and the Law of the Non-Excluded Middle", ''History of Religions''. 2003, no. 2. University of Chicago press.</ref> Ancient Hindu law books, from the first century onward, categorize non-vaginal sex (''ayoni'') as impure.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stances of Faiths on LGBT Issues: Hinduism |url=http://www.hrc.org/resources/entry/stances-of-faiths-on-lgbt-issues-hinduism |publisher=[[Human Rights Campaign]] |accessdate=2013-07-28 }}</ref> Same-sex sexuality and gender transformations are common among the Hindu pantheon of deities. Among the Sinic religions of [[East Asia]], including [[Confucianism]], [[Chinese folk religion]] and [[Taoism]], passionate homosexual expression is usually discouraged because it is believed to not lead to human fulfillment.<ref>Wawrytko, Sandra (1993). "Homosexuality and Chinese and Japanese Religions" in ''Homosexuality and World Religions'', edited by Arlene Swidler. Trinity Press International, 1993.</ref> ==Corporate attitudes== {{Globalize|section|USA|2name=the United States|date=December 2013}} In some [[capitalism|capitalist]] countries, large [[private sector]] [[corporation|firms]] often lead the way in the equal treatment of gay men and lesbians. For instance, more than half of the [[Fortune 500]] offer [[domestic partnership]] benefits and 49 of the Fortune 50 companies include [[sexual orientation]] in their non-discrimination policies (only [[ExxonMobil]] does not).<ref name="fortune500-sfgate">DeBare, Illana. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/06/30/BUGJNJMQ9C1.DTL "Gay, lesbian workers gradually gain benefits"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125184524/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F06%2F30%2FBUGJNJMQ9C1.DTL |date=25 January 2009 }}. ''San Francisco Chronicle''. 30 June 2006. Retrieved 13 April 2007.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Workplace Improves for Gay, Transgender Employees, Rights Group Says |first=Amy |last=Joyce |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/05/AR2005060501249.html |date=2006-06-06 |accessdate=2007-09-21 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> At the same time, studies show that many private firms engage in significant employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. In one study, for example, two fictitious but realistic resumes were sent to roughly 1,700 entry-level job openings. The two resumes were very similar in terms of the applicant's qualifications, but one resume for each opening mentioned that the applicant had been part of a gay organization in college. The results showed that applicants without the gay signal had an 11.5 percent chance of being called for an interview; openly gay applicants had only a 7.2 percent chance. The callback gap varied widely according to the location of the job. Most of the overall gap detected in the study was driven by the Southern and Midwestern states in the sample—Texas, Florida, and Ohio. The Western and Northeastern states in the sample (California, Nevada, Pennsylvania, and New York) had only small and statistically insignificant callback gaps.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/661653 Tilcsik, A. (2011). "Pride and prejudice: Employment discrimination against openly gay men in the United States". ''American Journal of Sociology'', 117, 586–626.]</ref> In the [[Western world]], in particular the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], the [[corporatisation]] of [[Pride parade|LGBT pride parades]] has been criticised by some.<ref>(UK) {{cite news|author1=Various|title=Don't let corporations spoil the spirit of Pride|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/12/corporations-spoil-the-spirit-of-pride-london|accessdate=5 January 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=12 June 2015}}; {{cite news|last1=Jones|first1=Owen|authorlink1=Owen Jones (writer)|title=Has the LGBT movement been hijacked by big business?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/video/2015/jun/29/lgbt-movement-hijacked-big-business-video|accessdate=5 January 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=29 June 2015|format=Video}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Gay Pride Parades Are Giant Excuses for Corporate Marketing. Get Over It|url=http://www.queerty.com/gay-pride-parades-are-giant-excuses-for-corporate-marketing-get-over-it-20100218|accessdate=5 January 2016|work=Queerty}}</ref> ==Anti-homosexual attitudes== [[File:2006 protesters at union square.jpg|thumb|Protesters at a 2006 gay pride event. San Francisco, United States.]] ===Conservatism=== [[Conservatism]] is a term broadly used for people who are inclined to traditional values. While conservatism includes people of many views, a significant proportion of its adherents consider homosexuals, and especially the efforts of homosexuals to achieve certain rights and recognition, to be a threat to valued traditions, institutions and freedoms. Such attitudes are generally tied in with opposition to what some conservatives call the "[[homosexual agenda]]".<ref> See, for example: * {{cite book |author1=Sears, Alan |author2=Osten, Craig |lastauthoramp=yes |title=The Homosexual Agenda: Exposing the Principal Threat to Religious Freedom Today |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8054-2698-4 }} * {{cite web |last=Morgan |first=Kristen |title=Recent Cases Show Homosexual Agenda's Threat to Religious Liberty |publisher=Concerned Women for America |url=http://www.cwfa.org/articles/11067/LEGAL/freedom/index.htm |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201073523/http://www.cwfa.org/articles/11067/LEGAL/freedom/index.htm |archivedate=1 December 2006 |df=dmy-all }} * {{cite web |last=Gagnon |first=Robert A. J. |title=Bearing False Witness: Balch's Effort at Demonization and His Truncated Gospel |pages=10–18 |url=http://www.cwfa.org/articles/11067/LEGAL/freedom/index.htm |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201073523/http://www.cwfa.org/articles/11067/LEGAL/freedom/index.htm |archivedate=1 December 2006 |df=dmy-all }} * {{cite web |title=Religious freedom under attack in Canada |work=Catholic Insight |year=2005 |url=http://catholicinsight.com/online/features/article_609.shtml |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061101033400/http://catholicinsight.com/online/features/article_609.shtml |archivedate=1 November 2006 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The finding that attitudes to [[alternative sexuality|alternative sexualities]] correlate strongly with nature of contact and with personal beliefs is stated in a variety of research over a substantial time period, and conservative men and women stand out in their views specifically. Thus Herek, who established the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale in psychology, states: <blockquote>The ATLG and its subscales are consistently correlated with other theoretically relevant constructs. Higher scores (more negative attitudes) correlate significantly with high religiosity, lack of contact with gay men and lesbians, adherence to traditional sex-role attitudes, belief in a traditional family ideology, and high levels of dogmatism<ref>(Herek, 1987a, 1987b, 1988, 1994; Herek & Glunt, 1993; Herek & Capitanio, 1995, 1996), [http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/atlg.html The Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men (ATLG) Scale<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref></blockquote> and that: <blockquote>The strongest predictor of positive attitudes toward homosexuals was that the interviewee knew a gay man or lesbian. The correlation held across each demographic subset represented in the survey—sex, education level, age—bar one: political persuasion."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nowack|first1=Rachel|title=Studies Discover Clues to the Roots of Homophobia|url=http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/articles/nowack.html|website=psychology.ucdavis.edu|publisher=The Journal of NIH Research|accessdate=15 February 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19980120084720/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/articles/nowack.html|archivedate=20 January 1998|pages=53–57|date=September 1993}}</ref></blockquote> An example of conservative views can also be found in the discussion of what conservatives call "[[homosexual recruitment]]", within a document released by the conservative Christian organization [[Alliance Defense Fund]] states: <blockquote>The homosexual activist movement are driving an agenda that will severely limit the ability to live and practice the Gospel, whether it is in the boardroom, the classroom, halls of government, private organizations, and even in places of worship. In their relentless attempts to obtain special rights, that no other special interest group has, they are in the process of redefining the family, demanding not only 'tolerance' ... but 'acceptance', and ultimately seeking to marginalize, censor, and punish those individuals who stand in the way of their multiple goals.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Alliance Defense Fund|title=THE HOMOSEXUAL LEGAL AGENDA: ''A BARRIER TO EVANGELISM''|url=http://www.crministries.org/TTT/ABarrierToEvangelism.pdf|publisher=Alliance Defense Fund|accessdate=15 February 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927152342/http://www.crministries.org/TTT/ABarrierToEvangelism.pdf|archivedate=27 September 2007|pages=4|date=2002}}</ref></blockquote> As this statement illustrates, those who believe that a disapproving attitude toward homosexuality is a tenet of their religion can see efforts to abolish such attitudes as an attack on their religious freedom. Those who regard homosexuality as a sin or perversion can believe that acceptance of homosexual parents and same-sex marriage will redefine and diminish the institutions of family and marriage. More generally, conservatives—by definition—prefer that institutions, traditions and values remain unchanged, and this has put many of them in opposition to efforts designed to increase the cultural acceptance and legal rights of homosexuals. ===Psychology and attempts at modification of sexual orientation=== {{main|Homosexuality and psychology|Sexual orientation change efforts}} In 1973, the [[American Psychiatric Association]] removed homosexuality from [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/research/action/gay.aspx |title=Being Gay Is Just as Healthy as Being Straight |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |date=28 May 2003 |accessdate=22 August 2013 }}</ref> The current DSM contains a diagnosis of "[[Ego-dystonic sexual orientation|persistent and marked distress about one's sexual orientation]]". The decision was supported by a majority of the membership. Though some criticized this as a political decision, the social and political impetus for change was supported by scientific evidence.<ref>Gay Is Okay With APA (American Psychiatric Association); available online: {{cite web |url=http://www.soulforce.org/article/642 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-03-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324080417/http://www.soulforce.org/article/642 |archivedate=24 March 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In fact, the research of [[Evelyn Hooker]] and other psychologists and psychiatrists helped to end the notion that homosexuality was in and of itself a mental illness. The [[World Health Organization]] currently lists [[ego-dystonic sexual orientation]] in the [[ICD-10]]. Many religious groups and other advocates, like [[National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality]] (NARTH), believe that they can "heal" or "cure" homosexuality through [[conversion therapy]] or other [[sexual orientation change efforts|methods to change sexual orientation]]. In a survey of 882 people who were undergoing [[conversion therapy]], attending "[[ex-gay]]" groups or "ex-gay" conferences, 22. 9% reported they had not undergone any changes, 42.7% reported some changes, and 34.3% reported much change in sexual orientation.<ref name="Nicolosi2000">{{cite journal |last=Nicolosi |first=Joseph |title=Retrospective self-reports of changes in homosexual orientation: A consumer survey of conversion therapy clients |author2=Byrd, A. Dean |author3=Potts, Richard W. |url=http://doi.apa.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=showUIDAbstract&uid=2000-00515-002 |journal=Psychological Reports |date=June 2000 |volume=86 |issue=3_suppl |pages=1071–1088 |doi=10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1071|pmid=10932560 }}</ref> Many Western health and mental health professional organizations believe sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime,<ref name="Psych">{{cite web |url=http://www.aglp.org/pages/cfactsheets.html#Anchor-Gay-14210 |title=Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Issues |author=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |publisher=Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrics |date=May 2000 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103200307/http://www.aglp.org/pages/cfactsheets.html#Anchor-Gay-14210 |archivedate=3 January 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but that this therapy is unnecessary, potentially harmful, and the effectiveness has not been rigorously and scientifically proven. Much attention was given to the dissent from this opinion by Dr. [[Robert Spitzer (psychiatrist)|Robert Spitzer]], but he later realized that his research was flawed and apologized for the damage it may have done.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.truthwinsout.org/news/2012/04/24542/ |title=Exclusive: Dr. Robert Spitzer Apologizes to Gay Community for Infamous 'Ex-Gay' Study |date=April 25, 2012 |accessdate=22 August 2013 |work=Truth Wins Out }}</ref> Another study refuting the claims of conversion therapy proponents was done in 2001 by Dr. Ariel Shidlo and Dr. Michael Schroeder, which showed only 3% of the participants claiming to have completely changed their orientation from gay to straight.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shidlo |first=Ariel |author2=Schroeder, Michael |author3=[[Jack Drescher|Drescher, Jack]] |title=Sexual Conversion Therapy: Ethical, Clinical, and Research Perspectives |year=2001 |publisher=Haworth Medical Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7890-1910-3 }}</ref> In many non-Western post-colonial countries, homosexual orientation is still considered to be a mental disorder and illness. In Muslim areas, this position is ascribed to the earlier adoption of European Victorian attitudes by the westernized elite, in areas where previously native traditions embraced same-sex relations.<ref>El-Rouayheb, Khaled, ''Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World'', Chicago, 2005</ref> ===Stereotypes=== {{Main|LGBT stereotypes}} ===Blame for plagues and disasters=== The destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] as takes place in the [[Bible]] is sometimes attributed to attempted homosexual rape, but this is disputed<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1142764.ece |work=[[The Times]] |title=Sodom and Gomorrah: the true story |date=2003-06-17 }}</ref> and differs from earlier beliefs. Early Jewish belief (and some [[Jews]] today)<ref name=Chabad-Sodom/> variously attributed the destruction to turning a blind eye to social injustice or lack of hospitality.<ref name=Chabad-Sodom>{{cite web|title=The Destruction of Sodom – Jewish History|url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/246615/jewish/The-Destruction-of-Sodom.htm|website=Chabad.org|publisher=Chabad|accessdate=15 February 2015|quote=The Sodomites were notorious for their wickedness. They had no consideration for the poor, nor for the passing stranger to whom they offered no hospitality; nor would they even sell him any food or water.}}</ref> Since the [[Middle Ages]], [[sodomy|sodomites]] were blamed for "bringing down the wrath of [[God]]" upon the land, and their pleasures blamed for the periodic [[epidemics]] of disease which decimated the population. This "pollution" was thought to be cleansed by fire, as a result of which countless individuals were burned at the stake or run through with white-hot iron rods.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Since the end of the 1980s similar accusations have been made, inspired by the [[HIV/AIDS]] epidemic, with preachers such as [[Jerry Falwell]] blaming both the victim and a supposedly tolerant societal view of homosexuality.<ref name=AIDS>{{cite web |url=http://www.milforddailynews.com/opinion/x1987843539 |title=Press: The Sad Legacy of Jerry Falwell |author=Press, Bill|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110421/http://www.milforddailynews.com/opinion/x1987843539|accessdate=15 February 2015|archivedate=28 September 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In the years since, the epidemic has spread and now has many more heterosexual victims than homosexual.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Reginald Summerrise|author2=Pamela DeCarlo|title=Heterosexual men|url=http://caps.ucsf.edu/archives/factsheets/heterosexual-men|publisher=Le Penseur Youth Services, Chicago, IL|accessdate=15 February 2015|quote=In the US, new AIDS cases are increasing among people who were infected through injecting drug use (IDU) and heterosexual sexual contact}}</ref> Other contemporary American examples: * [[Jerry Falwell]] made remarks interpreted as blaming "pagans, and the abortionists, and the feminists, and the gays and the lesbians who are actively trying to make that an alternative lifestyle, the ACLU, People for the American Way" for the September 11 attacks, but later apologized for his remarks. ([[Pat Robertson]] was also participating in the broadcast.)<ref name="autogenerated2001">{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/09/14/Falwell.apology/ |publisher=CNN |title=Falwell apologizes to gays, feminists, lesbians |date=14 September 2001 |accessdate=8 December 2001}}</ref> * [[Westboro Baptist Church]] leader [[Fred Phelps]] blamed homosexuals for the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th attacks]] and his church blames the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 on American, Swedish, and Thai homosexuals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.godhatesamerica.com/ghfmir/main/faq.html#Tsunami |title="What do you think about the Tsunami that hit Asia on December 26, 2004? Was it God's wrath? What about the children who were killed?", Westboro Baptist Church FAQ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702143230/http://www.godhatesamerica.com/ghfmir/main/faq.html |archivedate=2007-07-02}}</ref> ===Association with child abuse and pedophilia=== Relationships between adults and youths, both male and female, were practiced historically dating back to at least [[Ancient history|antiquity]], when they were reported among a number of cultures, among which the [[Celt]]ic, the [[Persia]]n and the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]].<ref>See Plato's ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' and Lucian's ''[[Lucian|Erotes]]''.</ref> The best documented, and perhaps the most formalized, the Greek tradition has become emblematic of erotic relations between men and adolescent boys, known as [[pederasty]]. Some people fear exposing their children to homosexuals in unsupervised settings, because they believe the children might be [[child molestation|molested]], [[raped]], or "[[homosexual recruitment|recruited]]" to be homosexuals themselves.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schlatter|first=Evelyn|last2=Steinback|first2=Robert| title=10 Hateful Anti-Gay Myths Debunked|url=http://www.alternet.org/story/149060/10_hateful_anti-gay_myths_debunked|publisher=[[AlterNet]]|date=9 December 2010|accessdate=18 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Halperin|first=David|title=Deviant Teaching|journal=A Companion to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Studies|year=2007|pages=146–167|editor1-first=George|editor1-last=Haggerty}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of lesbian and gay histories and cultures |year=2000 |publisher=Garland |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8153-1880-4 |pages=737–738 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L9Mj7oHEwVoC&pg=PA737 |editor1=Haggerty, George E. |editor2=Beynon, John |editor3=Eisner, Douglas |accessdate=4 February 2011}}</ref> The publicity surrounding the [[Roman Catholic sex abuse cases]] has heightened these concerns.<ref name="Keenan2011">{{cite book|author=Marie Keenan|title=Child Sexual Abuse and the Catholic Church: Gender, Power, and Organizational Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5zgD9-XM_0C&pg=PA65|date=29 September 2011|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-989567-0|page=65}}</ref> Many organizations focus on these concerns, drawing connections between homosexuality and pedophilia. According to a [[John Jay Report|study]] commissioned by the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/nrb/johnjaystudy/|title=Page Not Found|work=usccb.org}}</ref> under the auspices of the [[John Jay College of Criminal Justice]] and an all-lay review board headed by [[Illinois]] [[Appellate Court]] Justice Anne M. Burke, "81% of the reported victims of child sexual abuse by Catholic clergy were boys." The review board went on to conclude that, "the crisis was characterized by homosexual behavior", and in light of this, "the current crisis cannot be addressed without consideration of issues related to homosexuality." According to Margaret Smith, one of John Jay's researchers, however, it is "an unwarranted conclusion" to assert that the majority of priests who abused male victims are gay. Though "the majority of the abusive acts were homosexual in nature ... participation in homosexual acts is not the same as sexual identity as a gay man."<ref name="politicsdaily.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.politicsdaily.com/2009/11/18/new-catholic-sex-abuse-findings-gay-priests-not-the-problem |title=New Catholic Sex Abuse Findings: Gay Priests Are Not the Problem |accessdate=2010-04-23 |date=2009-11-18}}</ref> Psychology professor Gregory Herek also analyzed a number of studies and found no relationship between sexual orientation and molestation.<ref>Facts about Homosexuality and Molestation: [http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/HTML/facts_molestation.html Gregory Herek] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419022239/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/HTML/facts_molestation.html |date=19 April 2010 }}.</ref> One of her fellow researchers, Louis Schlesinger, argued that the main problem was [[pedophilia]] or [[ephebophilia]], not sexual orientation and said that some men who are married to adult women are attracted to adolescent males.<ref>{{cite news |date=2 March 2004 |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/abuse/abuse01.htm |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091004222333/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/abuse/abuse01.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=4 October 2009 |last=Filteau |first=Jerry |title=Sex abuse report pays special attention to homosexual priests |publisher=Catholic News Service }}</ref> Small-scale studies by Dr. Carole Jenny, Dr. A.W. Richard Sipe, and others have not found evidence that homosexuals are more likely to molest children than heterosexuals.<ref>Jenny et al. (1994) ''Are Children at Risk for Sexual Abuse by Homosexuals?''</ref><ref name="usatoday2002">{{cite news |date=15 July 2002 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/2002-07-15-church-gay_x.htm |last=Elias |first=Marilyn |title=Is homosexuality to blame for church scandal? |newspaper=USA Today |accessdate=8 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_molestation.html|title=Facts About Homosexuality and Child Molestation|work=ucdavis.edu|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419022239/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/HTML/facts_molestation.html|archivedate=19 April 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Based on the responses of a sample of thousands of admitted child molesters, one study found that 70% of the sex offenders who targeted boys rated themselves as predominantly or exclusively heterosexual in adult orientation on the [[Kinsey scale]], and only 8% as exclusively homosexual.<ref>Gene Abel, M.D. and Nora Harlow, ''The Stop Child Molestation Book'', 2001</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Abel|first=Gene G.|title=The Abel and Harlow Child Molestation Prevention Study|url=http://www.childmolestationprevention.org/pdfs/study.pdf|work=The Stop Child Molestation Book|publisher=Xlibris|accessdate=29 June 2012|author2=Nora Harlow|date=2001|quote=More than 70 percent of the men who molest boys rate themselves as heterosexual in their adult sexual preferences. In addition, 9 percent report that they are equally heterosexual and homosexual. Only 8 percent report that they are exclusively homosexual}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} [[Phallometric test]]ing on community males shows that men with a preference for adult males (often called "[[androphile]]s" in these studies) are no more attracted to adolescent or younger boys than are men with a preference for adult females (or "[[gynephile]]s").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fetishes-i-dont-get/201102/do-gay-men-have-more-sexual-interest-in-children|title=Do Gay Men Have More Sexual Interest in Children?|website=Psychology Today|author=[[Alice Dreger]]|date=28 February 2011}}</ref><ref name=eroticage /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Freund | first1 = Kurt | display-authors = etal | year = 1973 | title = Heterosexual Aversion in Homosexual Males | url = | journal = Br. J. Psychiatry | volume = 73 | issue = 122| pages = 163–169 | doi=10.1192/bjp.122.2.163}}</ref> Conversely, sex offenders targeting boys—especially prepubescent boys—may be heterosexual, while others lack attraction to adults of either sex.<ref>A. Nicholas Groth, William F. Hobson, and Thomas S. Gary, "The Child Molester: Clinical Observations", in ''Social Work and Child Sexual Abuse'', eds. Jon R. Conte and David A. Shore (New York: Haworth Press, 1982), 129‑44</ref> Dr. [[Kurt Freund]], analyzing sex offender samples, concluded that only rarely does a sex offender against male children have a preference for adult males;<ref name=eroticage>{{cite journal | last1 = Freund | first1 = Kurt | last2 = Watson | first2 = Robin J. | last3 = Rienzo | first3 = Douglas | year = 1989 | title = Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and the erotic age preference | url = | journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 107–117 | doi=10.1080/00224498909551494}}</ref> Frenzel and Lang (1989) also noticed a lack of androphiles in their phallometric analysis of 144 child sex offenders, which included 25 men who offended against underage boys.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Identifying sexual preferences in intrafamilial and extrafamilial child sexual abusers|journal=Annals of Sex Research|author1=Roy R. Frenzel|author2=Reuben A. Lang|doi=10.1007/BF00849718|year=1989|pages=255–275|volume=2|issue=3|citeseerx=10.1.1.1004.3266}}</ref> A study involving 21 adult sex offenders against boys found that two thirds of them had a sexual preference for women over men, as measured by the penile plethysmograph, with the larger, "heterosexual" subgroup targeting younger boys than the "homosexual" group.<ref>{{citation|author=Marshall|year=1988|title=Sexual offenders against male children: Sexual preferences|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=26|issue=5|pages=383–391|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000579678890071X|doi=10.1016/0005-7967(88)90071-x|display-authors=etal}}</ref> A more recent survey, which asked self-identified pedophiles in online communities to rate their sexual attraction to males and females from age 1 to age 18, found that those men disclosed very low levels of attraction towards more mature males, with the authors concluding that, "[i]ntense sexual attraction to male children is distinct from, and not generally compatible with, intense sexual attraction to men."<ref>{{cite journal|title=An Internet Study of Men Sexually Attracted to Children: Sexual Attraction Patterns|author1=J. Michael Bailey |year=2016|journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology|volume=125|issue=7|pages=976–988|doi=10.1037/abn0000212|pmid=27732027 }}</ref> [[Johns Hopkins University]] [[psychiatrist]] Dr. [[Frederick Berlin]], who runs a treatment program for offenders, says it's flawed to assume that men who molest young boys are attracted to adult men; Berlin defines attraction to children as a separate orientation of its own.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,232584,00.html |title=Pedophilia |accessdate=4 June 2007 |last=Cloud |first=John |date=13 January 2003 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> [[Psychotherapist]] Dr. A. W. Richard Sipe also argues that the sexual deprivation that occurs in the [[priesthood]] could lead one to turn to children and that boys are more accessible to priests and other male authority figures than girls.<ref name="usatoday2002"/> A study by Dr. A. Nicholas Groth found that nearly half of the child sex offenders in his small sample were exclusively attracted to children. The other half regressed to children after finding trouble in adult relationships. No one in his sample was primarily attracted to same-sex adults.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sexual Exploitation of Children: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Crime of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives (pp 106)|year=2002 |publisher=University Press of the Pacific |isbn=978-0-89875-740-8}}</ref> The empirical research shows that sexual orientation does not affect the likelihood that people will abuse children.<ref name=herekmolest>[[Gregory M. Herek]]:[http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_molestation.html Facts About Homosexuality and Child Molestation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419022239/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/HTML/facts_molestation.html |date=19 April 2010 }}</ref><ref name=lamb>[[Michael Lamb (psychologist)|Michael Lamb]], [http://www.glad.org/uploads/docs/cases/gill-v-office-of-personnel-management/2009-11-17-doma-aff-lamb.pdf Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts (2009)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225193923/http://www.glad.org/uploads/docs/cases/gill-v-office-of-personnel-management/2009-11-17-doma-aff-lamb.pdf |date=25 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx |title=Sexual orientation, homosexuality, and bisexuality |publisher=American Psychological Association |accessdate=2010-11-30 }}</ref> Many child molesters cannot be characterized as having an adult sexual orientation at all; they are fixated on children.<ref name="herekmolest"/> Past societal attitudes toward homosexuality have sometimes been compared to present societal attitudes toward pedophilia, since each was at one time viewed as self-evidently wrong,<ref>{{cite journal|quote=Dominant groups deny that there is anything to discuss, asserting that existing arrangements are self-evident and intuitively good, usually claiming that they reflect nature and a natural order. Dissenters are dismissed as 'radical', 'crazy', 'evil', or 'cult' figures.|title=The Pattern of Sexual Politics: Feminism, Homosexuality and Pedophilia|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=37|number=2|date=1999|author=Mirkin, Harris|pages=1–24|pmid=10207822|doi=10.1300/J082v37n02_01}}</ref> particularly in light of the lack of a marital relationship between the sexual partners.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/judge-compares-incest-and-paedophilia-to-past-attitudes-towards-homosexuality-claiming-they-might-not-be-taboo-anymore-20140709-zt0v2.html|last=Hall |first=Louise|date=9 July 2014|newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald|title=Judge compares incest and paedophilia to past attitudes towards homosexuality, claiming they might not be taboo anymore}}</ref> Lawmakers and social commentators have sometimes expressed a concern that normalizing homosexuality would also lead to normalizing pedophilia, if it were determined that pedophilia too were a sexual orientation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.wral.com/stam-calls-pedophilia-bestiality-sexual-orientations-/13762098/|title=Stam calls pedophilia, sadism 'sexual orientations'|author=Stam, Paul|date=25 June 2014|publisher=WRAL}}</ref> ====International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association==== {{main|North American Man/Boy Love Association#The International Lesbian and Gay Association controversy|International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association#Controversy and loss of UN consultative status}} ==={{anchor|Opposition to promotion of homosexuality}} Opposition to "promotion of homosexuality"=== {{see also|Homosexual agenda}} "Promotion of homosexuality"<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/html/20090616T170000-0500_153587_OBS_LITHUANIA_BANS_PROMOTION_OF_HOMOSEXUALITY_.asp |title=Lithuania bans promotion of homosexuality |work=Jamaica Observer |date=2009-06-17 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620183255/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/html/20090616T170000-0500_153587_OBS_LITHUANIA_BANS_PROMOTION_OF_HOMOSEXUALITY_.asp|archivedate=20 June 2009|accessdate=16 February 2015|deadurl=yes}}</ref> is a group of behaviors believed by some [[gay rights opponents]] to be carried out in the [[mass media]],<ref name="Elledge2010">{{cite book|author=Jim Elledge|title=Queers in American Popular Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qp52mROzDMYC&pg=RA2-PA235|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35457-1|page=2}}</ref> [[public places]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org.uk/actions_details.asp?ActionID=629 |title=Lithuania: Move to criminalise the promotion of homosexuality |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] UK |accessdate=2009-10-01}}</ref> etc. The term ''[[gay propaganda]]'' may be used by others to allege similar behaviors, especially in relation to [[false accusations]] of [[homosexual recruitment]] and an alleged gay agenda. In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Section 28]] of the [[Local Government Act 1988|1988 Local Government Act]] banned "promotion of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship" by local government employees in the course of their duties. The act was aimed to prevent the "promotion of homosexuality" in schools. It was later repealed in [[Scotland]] on 21 June 2000 as one of the first pieces of legislation enacted by the new [[Scottish Parliament]], and on 18 November 2003 in [[England and Wales]] by section 122 of the [[Local Government Act 2003]], with the Labour government also issuing an apology to LGBT people for the act.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aidsmap.com/en/news/2E76C672-A4F3-4CE6-8146-1C0D5946E8A8.asp |title=UK law which banned 'promotion of homosexuality' and obstructed HIV prevention passes into history |publisher=[[aidsmap]] |date=2003-07-11 |accessdate=2009-10-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=James Chapman |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1196924/Cameron-apologises-gays-Section-28-Maggies-law-ban-promotion-homosexuality-schools-wrong-says-Tory-leader.html |title=Cameron apologises to gays for Section 28: Maggie's law to ban promotion of homosexuality in schools was wrong, says Tory leader |work=[[Daily Mail]] |date=2009-02-07 |accessdate=2009-10-01}}</ref> This "promotion" is opposed by Morocco.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.baltimoregaylife.com/news/international_news/morocco-targets-promotion-of-homosexuality.shtml |title=Morocco Targets Promotion of Homosexuality |newspaper=Baltimore Gay Life |date=2009-04-16 |accessdate=2009-10-01}}</ref> See also [[Article 200]] section of the Penal Code of [[Romania]], which was amended in 1996 and repealed in 2001, and the proposed [[Anti-Homosexuality Bill]] in [[Uganda]] for similar such proscriptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/newswire/2009/10/15-16|title=Uganda: 'Anti-Homosexuality' Bill Threatens Liberties and Human Rights Defenders|work=Common Dreams}}</ref><ref>[http://www.iglhrc.org/cgi-bin/iowa/article/takeaction/globalactionalerts/989.html Uganda Action Alert: Dismiss the Anti-Homosexuality Bill<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Lithuania]] put in place a similar such ban 16 June 2009 amid protests by [[gay rights]] groups. LGBT rights groups stated that it would be taken to the [[European Court of Human Rights]] for violation of European Human rights laws.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=lithuania-mps-votes-for-gay-promotion-ban-2009-07-14 |title=Lithuania MPs votes for gay promotion ban |newspaper=Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review |date=2009-07-14 |accessdate=2009-10-01 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723135928/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=lithuania-mps-votes-for-gay-promotion-ban-2009-07-14 |archivedate=23 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Several territories in the country of [[Russia]] had implemented similar laws restricting the distribution of "propaganda" promoting homosexuality to minors, including [[Ryazan]], [[Arkhangelsk]], and [[Saint Petersburg]].<ref name=gsn-repeal>{{cite news |title=Russian region repeals gay propaganda law|url=http://www.gaystarnews.com/article/russian-region-repeals-gay-propaganda-law061113|work=[[Gay Star News]]|accessdate=17 February 2014}}</ref> In June 2013, a federal bill was passed that made [[Russian LGBT propaganda law|the distribution of materials promoting "non-traditional sexual relationships" among minors]] a criminal offence; the bill's author [[Yelena Mizulina]] argued that the law was intended to help protect "traditional family values".<ref>{{cite news|last=Flintoff|first=Corey|title=Russian parliament may pass anti-gay law|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=193194578|newspaper=NPR|date=18 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=a19-law>{{cite web |title=Russia: Federal laws introducing ban of propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships|url=http://www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/37129/13-06-27-russia-LA.pdf|publisher=[[Article 19]]|accessdate=14 February 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2014|10}}, [[Kyrgyzstan]] was in the process of adopting a law which would "mandate jail terms for gay-rights activists and others, including journalists, who create 'a positive attitude toward non-traditional sexual relations'".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/kyrgyzstan-moves-towards-adoption-russia-anti-gay-law |newspaper=The Guardian|title=Kyrgyzstan moves towards adoption of Russia's anti-gay law |last=Trilling |first=David |date=16 October 2014 |accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref> ===Violence=== {{Main|Violence against LGBT people}} Gay people have been the target of violence for their sexuality in various cultures throughout history. During [[the Holocaust]], 100,000 gay men were arrested, and between 5,000–15,000 gay men perished in [[Nazi concentration camps]].<ref name=USHM>[http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/hsx/ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119045626/http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/hsx/ |date=19 January 2012 }}</ref> [[Violence against LGBT people]] continues to occur today, fueled by anti-gay rhetoric,<ref>{{cite news|last=Kirby|first=David|title=From Soft Words To Hard Fists: When Antigay Rhetoric Fills The Air, Attacks On Gay Men and Lesbians Are Not Far Behind|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UWMEAAAAMBAJ|accessdate=11 January 2013|newspaper=The Advocate|date=24 November 1998}}</ref> usually by teenage boys and young men who are very hostile to LGBT people and men who do not conform to traditional gender roles."" ===Anti-gay rhetoric=== {{Main|Anti-LGBT rhetoric|Homophobic propaganda}} {{Expand section|date=January 2018}} ==Regions and historical periods== Societal attitudes toward homosexuality vary greatly in different cultures and different historical periods, as do attitudes toward sexual desire, activity and relationships in general. All cultures have their own [[sexual norm|values regarding appropriate and inappropriate sexuality]]; some sanction same-sex love and sexuality, while others disapprove of such activities.<ref name="ReferenceA">Murray, Stephen O., ''Homosexualities'', University of Chicago 2000</ref> As with heterosexual behaviour, different sets of prescriptions and proscriptions may be given to individuals according to their [[gender]], age, [[social status]] or [[social class|class]]. For example, among the [[samurai]] class of pre-modern Japan, it was recommended for a teenage novice to enter into an erotic relationship with an older warrior (see [[Shudo]]), but sexual relations between the two became inappropriate once the boy came of age.<ref>Tsuneo Watanabe and Jun'ichi Iwata, ''The Love of the Samurai: A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality'', GMP Publishers Ltd, London 1989</ref> ===Ancient Greece=== [[File:Kiss Briseis Painter Louvre G278 full.jpg|thumb|Male couple ([[Pederasty in ancient Greece#Terminology|''erastes'' and ''eromenos'']]) kissing ''([[Red-figure pottery|Attic red-figured cup]], ca. 480 BC)'']] {{Main|Homosexuality in ancient Greece}} {{See also|Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece|Pederasty in ancient Greece}} In [[Ancient Greece]] homoerotic practices were widely present, and integrated into the religion, education, philosophy and military culture.<ref>Dover, 1978, ''passim''</ref> The sexualized form of these relationships was the topic of vigorous debate. In particular, anal intercourse was condemned by many, including [[Plato]], as a form of [[hubris]] and faulted for dishonoring and feminizing the boys. Relations between adult males were generally ridiculed. Plato also believed that the chaste form of the relationship was the mark of an enlightened society, while only [[barbarians]] condemned it.<ref>Plato, Symposium; 182c</ref> [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/19a_p1.html|title=The Greeks – Homosexuality|work=pbs.org}}</ref> are both well known for encouraging same-sex relationships as part of a youth's education and socialization. In both societies, though, once a youth came of age he was expected to take on another youth as beloved, and eventually to marry and continue the family line. ===Ancient Rome=== {{Main|Homosexuality in Ancient Rome}} "Homosexual" and "heterosexual" were not categories of [[Sexuality in ancient Rome|Roman sexuality]], and [[Latin]] lacks words that would translate these concepts exactly.<ref>Craig Williams, ''Roman Homosexuality'' (Oxford University Press, 1999, 2010), p. 304, citing Saara Lilja, ''Homosexuality in Republican and Augustan Rome'' (Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1983), p. 122.</ref> The primary dichotomy of Roman sexuality was active/dominant/masculine and passive/submissive/"feminized". The masculinity of an [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Male sexuality|adult male citizen was defined sexually]] by his taking the penetrative role, whether his partner was female or a male [[Social class in ancient Rome|of lower status]].<ref>Craig A. Williams, ''Roman Homosexuality'' (Oxford University Press, 1999, 2010), p. 18 ''et passim''; Marilyn Skinner, introduction to ''Roman Sexualities'' (Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 11.</ref> A Roman citizen's political liberty ''(libertas)'' was defined in part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion or use by others;<ref>Thomas A.J. McGinn, ''Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome'' (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 326.</ref> for the male citizen to use his body to give pleasure was considered servile and subversive of the social hierarchy.<ref>Catharine Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome", in ''Roman Sexualities'', pp. 67–68.</ref> It was considered natural for a man to be attracted to a beautiful young male,<ref>Amy Richlin, ''The Garden of Priapus: Sexuality and Aggression in Roman Humor'' (Oxford University Press, 1983, 1992), p. 225, and "Not before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the ''cinaedus'' and the Roman Law against Love between Men", ''Journal of the History of Sexuality'' 3.4 (1993), p. 525.</ref> but the bodies of citizen youths were strictly off-limits.<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Moralia'' 288a; Thomas Habinek, "The Invention of Sexuality in the World-City of Rome", in ''The Roman Cultural Revolution'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 39; Richlin, ''Not before Homosexuality'', pp. 545–546.</ref> Acceptable male partners were [[Slavery in ancient Rome|slaves]], male [[Prostitution in ancient Rome|prostitutes]], or others who lacked social standing (the ''[[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Pleasure and infamy|infames]])''. Same-sex relations among male citizens of equal status, including [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Sex in the military|soldiers]], were disparaged, and in some circumstances penalized harshly.<ref>Sara Elise Phang, ''Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 93. A passage in [[Polybius]] has sometimes been taken to mean that soldiers who engaged in same-sex acts with each other were subject to execution; soldiers were free to use male slaves for sex.</ref> In political rhetoric, a man might be attacked for [[effeminacy]] or playing the passive role in sex acts, but not for performing penetrative sex on a socially acceptable male partner.<ref>Catharine Edwards, ''The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome'' (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 63–64. [[Populares|"Democratic" politicians]] in particular were accused by the [[optimates|conservative elite]] of effeminacy and passive homosexual behavior.</ref> Threats of [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Anal sex|anal]] or [[irrumatio|oral rape]] against another man were forms of masculine braggadocio.<ref>Williams, ''Roman Homosexuality'', p. 20; Skinner, introduction to ''Roman Sexualities'', p. 12; Amy Richlin, "The Meaning of ''irrumare'' in Catullus and Martial", ''Classical Philology'' 76.1 (1981) 40–46.</ref> Homosexual behaviors were regulated in so far as they threatened or impinged on an ideal of liberty for the dominant male, who retained his masculinity by not being penetrated.<ref>[[Eva Cantarella]], ''Bisexuality in the Ancient World'' (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988 in Italian), p. xii ''et passim''.</ref> The ''[[Lex Scantinia]]'' imposed penalties on those who committed a sex crime ''([[stuprum]])'' against a [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Sexuality and children|freeborn male minor]]; it may also have been used to prosecute adult male citizens who willingly took the "passive" role.<ref>Edwards, ''The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome'', p. 71; Marguerite Johnson and Terry Ryan, ''Sexuality in Greek and Roman Society and Literature: A Sourcebook'' (Routledge, 2005), p. 7. Scholars disagree as to whether the penalty for ''[[stuprum]]'' against a minor was death or a fine.</ref> Children who were born into slavery or became enslaved had no legal protections against sexual abuse; a good-looking and graceful slave-boy might be chosen and groomed as his owner's sexual favorite.<ref>John Pollini, "The Warren Cup: Homoerotic Love and Symposial Rhetoric in Silver", ''Art Bulletin'' 81.1 (1999), p. 34.</ref> [[Pederasty in ancient Rome]] thus differed from [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic practice in ancient Greece]], where by custom the couple were both freeborn males of equal social status. The 18th-century historian [[Edward Gibbon]] declared that of the first fifteen [[Roman emperor]]s, only [[Claudius]] was "entirely correct" in his sexual practices, by which Gibbon meant exclusively heterosexual.<ref>Edward Gibbon, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (London, 1776), vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aLcWAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR12&dq=%22Claudius+was+the+only+one+whose+taste+in+love+was+entirely+correct%22 p. xii.]</ref> [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Male–female sex|Confining one's sexual activities to women]] was considered unusual among the Romans.<ref>Thomas Habinek, "The Invention of Sexuality in the World-City of Rome", in ''The Roman Cultural Revolution'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 1ff., especially p. 31.</ref> Although [[Roman law]] did not recognize marriage between men, and in general [[Marriage in ancient Rome|Romans regarded marriage]] as a heterosexual union with the primary purpose of producing children, in the early [[Roman Empire|Imperial period]] some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites. [[Juvenal]] remarks that his friends often attended such ceremonies.<ref>Juvenal, ''Satire'' 2; Williams, ''Roman Homosexuality'', p. 28.</ref> The emperor [[Nero]] had two marriages to men, once as the bride (with a [[freedman]] [[Pythagoras (freedman)|Pythagoras]]) and once as the groom. He had his pederastic lover [[Sporus]] castrated, and during their marriage, Sporus appeared in public as Nero's wife wearing the regalia that was customary for Roman empresses.<ref>[[Suetonius]] ''Life of Nero'' 28–29; Williams, ''Roman Homosexuality'', p. 279 ''ff''.</ref> [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Female–female sex|Same-sex relations among women]] are infrequently documented during the Republic and [[Principate]], but better attested during the Empire.<ref>Amy Richlin, "Sexuality in the Roman Empire", in ''A Companion to the Roman Empire'' (Blackwell, 2006), p. 346; [[Bernadette Brooten|Bernadette J. Brooten]], ''Love between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female Homoeroticism'' (University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 1.</ref> An early reference to homosexual women as "lesbians" is found in the Roman-era Greek writer [[Lucian]] (2nd century AD): "They say there are women like that in [[Lesbos]], masculine-looking, but they don't want to give it up for men. Instead, they consort with women, just like men."<ref>Lucian, ''Dialogues of the Courtesans'' 5.</ref> Since male writers thought a sex act required an active or dominant partner who was "[[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Phallic sexuality|phallic]]", they imagined that in lesbian sex one of the women would use a [[dildo]] or have an exceptionally large [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Female genitalis|clitoris]] for penetration, and that she would be the one experiencing pleasure.<ref>Jonathan Walters, "Invading the Roman Body: Manliness and Impenetrability in Roman Thought", pp. 30–31, and Pamela Gordon, "The Lover's Voice in ''Heroides'' 15: Or, Why Is Sappho a Man?", p. 283, both in ''Roman Sexualities''; John R. Clarke, "Look Who's Laughing at Sex: Men and Women Viewers in the ''Apodyterium'' of the Suburban Baths at Pompeii", in ''The Roman Gaze: Vision, Power, and the Body'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), p. 168.</ref> The poet [[Martial]] describes lesbians as having outsized sexual appetites and performing penetrative sex on both women and boys.<ref>Martial 1.90 and 7.67, 50; Richlin, ''Sexuality in the Roman Empire'', p. 347; John R. Clarke, ''Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100 B.C.–A.D. 250'' (University of California Press, 1998, 2001), p. 228.</ref> Satiric portrayals of women who sodomize boys, drink and eat like men, and engage in vigorous physical regimens, may reflect cultural anxieties about the growing independence of [[Women in ancient Rome|Roman women]].<ref>Clarke, ''Looking at Lovemaking'', p. 228.</ref> ===Ancient China=== {{Main|Homosexuality in China}} Like the cultures of many ancient civilizations, the Chinese had no concept of homosexuality and heterosexuality,<ref>Kang, Wenqing. ''Obsession: male same-sex relations in China, 1900–1950'', Hong Kong University Press. Page 2</ref> and according to Louis Crompton, there are historical records that tacitly assumed bisexuality as the human norm in China.<ref name="autogenerated2003"/> Many early Chinese emperors are speculated to have had homosexual relationships, accompanied by heterosexual ones.<ref>Hinsch, Bret. (1990). ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve''. University of California Press. pp. 35–36.</ref> Writings from the [[Liu Song Dynasty]] claimed that homosexuality was as common as heterosexuality in the late 3rd century, stating that "All the gentlemen and officials esteemed it. All men in the realm followed this fashion to the extent that husbands and wives were estranged. Resentful unmarried women became jealous."<ref name="Hinsch56">Hinsch, Bret. (1990). ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve''. University of California Press. p. 56</ref> Same-sex practices have been documented there since the "Spring and Autumn Annals" period (parallel with Classical Greece) and its roots are found in the legend of China's origin, the reign of the Yellow Emperor, who, among his many inventions, is credited with being the first to take male bedmates.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Opposition to homosexuality in China originates in the medieval [[Tang Dynasty]], attributed to the rising influence of Christian and Islamic values,<ref name="Hinsch, Bret 1990 p. 77-78">Hinsch, Bret. (1990). ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve''. University of California Press. p. 77-78.</ref> but did not become fully established until the late [[Qing Dynasty]] and the [[Republic of China]].<ref name="Kang1">Kang, Wenqing. ''Obsession: male same-sex relations in China, 1900–1950'', Hong Kong University Press. Page 3</ref> The Chinese [[Psychiatrists]]' Association removed [[homosexuality]] from the list of [[mental illnesses]] in April 2001.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gittings|first1=John|title=China drops homosexuality from list of psychiatric disorders|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/mar/07/china.johngittings1|accessdate=April 3, 2016|work=The Guardian|date=March 7, 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Homosexuality Not an Illness, Chinese Say|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/08/health/08PSYC.html|accessdate=April 3, 2016|work=Associated Press|publisher=New York Times|date=March 7, 2001|location=Beijing, China}}</ref> However, as openly [[gay]] scriptwriter and teacher [[Cui Zi'en]] points out, "In the West, it's frowned on to criticize homosexuals and even more to make them feel different", says Cui Zi'en, contrasting it with Chinese society which, "is changing, but there'll always be people who'll feel disgust".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Crossing the line|journal=The UNESCO Courier|date=July–August 2001|page=38|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001230/123057e.pdf|accessdate=3 April 2016}}</ref> ===Ancient Israel=== According to the Priestly author of the book of [[Leviticus]], intercourse between males was condemned as an “abomination” (Leviticus 18:22, 22:13), and required the death penalty for those men who "lie with a man as with a woman".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_bibh3.htm |title=Homosexuality in the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) |publisher=Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance |accessdate=2010-04-09 |quote=KJV: (King James Version): "If a man also lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death. Their blood shall be upon them."}}</ref><!-- another potential link: http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/says_about/homosexuality.html --> No other authors in the [[Hebrew Bible]] condemn homosexuality. The relationship described between [[David and Jonathan]] in 1 Samuel 18 - 2 Samuel 1 has been of late interpreted by some people as a romantic one, however this view is not what the early church held. ===Early Christianity=== {{Main|Homosexuality and Christianity}} Many contend that from its earliest days, [[Christianity]] followed the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] tradition of condemnation of male sexual intercourse and certain forms of sexual relations between men and women, labeling both as ''[[sodomy]]''. Some contemporary Christian scholars dispute this however. The teachings of [[Jesus Christ]] encouraged a turning away from and forgiveness of sin, including those sins of sexual impurity, although Jesus never referred to homosexuality specifically. Jesus was known as a defender of those whose sexual sins were condemned by the [[Pharisees]]. At the same time, Jesus strongly upheld the [[Ten Commandments]] and urged those whose sexual sins were forgiven to, "go, and sin no more".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drbo.org/chapter/50008.htm|title=Douay-Rheims Catholic Bible, Gospel According to Saint John Chapter 8|work=drbo.org}}</ref> [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] was even more explicit in his condemnation of sinful behavior, including sodomy, saying, "Know you not that the unjust shall not possess the kingdom of God? Do not err: neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor the effeminate, nor liers with mankind, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor railers, nor extortioners, shall possess the kingdom of God."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drbo.org/chapter/53006.htm|title=Douay-Rheims Catholic Bible, First Epistle Of Saint Paul To The Corinthians Chapter 6|work=drbo.org}}</ref> However, the exact meanings of [[Homosexuality in the New Testament#1 Corinthians 6; 1 Timothy 1|two of the ancient Greek words]] that Paul used that supposedly refer to homosexuality are disputed among scholars. In the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, however, the relevant words employed in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy are the same words employed in Leviticus 18 to denote gay men. ===Christian Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire=== After the emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] ended the persecution of Christians throughout the [[Roman Empire]] and made [[Christianity]] the official state religion in the 4th century, Christian attitudes toward sexual behavior were soon incorporated into Roman Law. In the year 528, the emperor [[Justinian I]], responding to an outbreak of [[pederasty]] among the Christian clergy, issued a law which made [[castration]] the punishment for sodomy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/malalas.html|title=Malalas|work=fordham.edu}}</ref> ===Medieval Europe=== {{main|Homosexuality in Medieval Europe}} In medieval Europe, homosexuality was considered [[sodomy]] and was punishable by death. Persecutions reached their height during the [[Medieval Inquisition]]s, when the sects of [[Cathars]] and [[Waldensians]] were accused of fornication and sodomy, alongside accusations of Satanism. In 1307, accusations of sodomy and homosexuality were major charges leveled during the [[Trial of the Knights Templar]].<ref>G. Legman "The Guilt of the Templars" (New York: Basic Books, 1966): 11.</ref> The theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] was influential in linking condemnations of homosexuality with the idea of [[natural law]], arguing that "special sins are against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the intercourse of male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly qualified as unnatural vices".<ref name="civ2">Crompton, Louis, ''Homosexuality and Civilization'', Harvard University, 2003. Page 187</ref> ===New Guinea=== The [[Bedamini people]] of [[New Guinea]] believe that semen is the main source of masculinity and strength. In consequence, the sharing of semen between men, particularly when there is an age gap, is seen as promoting growth throughout nature, while excessive heterosexual activities are seen as leading to decay and death.<ref>''Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia'', Gilbert H. Herdt, ed. University of California Press, 1984</ref> ===Russia=== A survey run by the [[Levada Centre]] in [[Russia]] in July 2010 concluded that "homophobia is widespread in Russian society". It draws this conclusion from the following findings. 74% of respondents believed that gays and lesbians are immoral or psychologically disturbed people. Only 15% responded that homosexuality is as legitimate as traditional sexual orientation. 39% consider that they should be compulsorily treated or alternatively isolated from society. 4% considered that it is necessary to liquidate people of a non-traditional sexual orientation. On the other hand, many Russians (45%) were in favour of the equality of homosexuals with other citizens (41% against, 15% undecided). Most supported the introduction in Russia of laws forbidding discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation and incitement of hatred for gays and lesbians (31% against, 28% undecided). The Levada Centre reached the following conclusions on the distribution of these view in different groups of society. "In Russian society, homophobia is most often encountered among men, older respondents (over 55), and people with an average level of education and low income... Women, young Russians (18–39), and well educated and comfortably off respondents showed more tolerance for people of a non-traditional sexual orientation, and more understanding of related issues. Respondents over 40, people of average or lower education or low incomes, and rural people—the sectors retaining the inertia of Soviet thinking—are more likely to believe that homosexuality is a disease requiring treatment, and that homosexuals must be isolated from society".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://old.levada.ru/press/2010080602.html |title=Views on Homosexuality in Russian Society |publisher=the Levada Centre: The Yuriy Levada Analytical Centre |date=2010-08-06 |accessdate=2011-12-09 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6AWddulLW?url=http://old.levada.ru/press/2010080602.html |archive-date=8 September 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ===Arab world=== Men who have sex with other men in Arab societies do not commonly refer to each other as homosexuals. Laurens Buijs, [[Gert Hekma]], and Jan Willem Duyvendak, authors of the 2011 article "'As long as they keep away from me': The paradox of antigay violence in a gay-friendly country", said "This might explain why they are more likely to condemn men who explicitly claim a homosexual identity."<ref name="Buijsetal649">Buijs, et al., p. 649.</ref> In the 2011 article they said that among men in Arab countries who do not identify as homosexual anal sexual intercourse is "often said to be common" and that the men's "masculine gender role is not at stake as long as they take up the active role".<ref name="Buijsetal649"/> ===Netherlands=== {{expand section|date=May 2013}} Laurens Buijs, [[Gert Hekma]], and Jan Willem Duyvendak, authors of the 2011 article "'As long as they keep away from me': The paradox of antigay violence in a gay-friendly country", said that the Netherlands has a "tolerant and gay-friendly image",<ref name=Buijsetal633>Buijs, et al., p. 633.</ref> and that Dutch people, according to cross-national survey research, exhibit more acceptance of homosexuality than "most other European peoples".<ref name=Buijsetal634>Buijs, et al., p. 634.</ref> They also stated that Dutch people exhibit support for equal rights for and non-discrimination of homosexuals.<ref name=Buijsetal634/> They explained "[[Amsterdam]], in particular is often associated with gay emancipation, as it provided the setting for the world's first legally recognized 'gay marriage' in 2001, and hosts the famous gay parade with festively decorated boats floating through the city's picturesque canals each year."<ref name=Buijsetal634/> According to the article, despite this reputation, the aspects of attempts of men to seduce other men, anal sex, behavior perceived as "feminine" from males, and public displays of affection among homosexuals are likely to trigger homophobia in the Netherlands.<ref name=Buijsetal635>Buijs, et al., p. 635.</ref> They argued that "antigay violence is a remarkably grave problem" in that country.<ref name=Buijsetal633/> They explained that members of five ethnic groups, [[Dutch-Antilleans]], [[Greeks in the Netherlands|Dutch-Greeks]], [[Dutch-Moroccans]], [[Serbs in the Netherlands|Dutch-Serbs]], [[Dutch-Turks]], "are less accepting towards homosexuality, also when controlled for gender, age, level of education and religiosity".<ref name=Buijsetal648>Buijs, et al., p. 648.</ref> They also stated that the culture in the [[Armed Forces of the Netherlands]] "is notoriously masculine and intolerant towards homosexuality".<ref name=Buijsetal648/> Until the year 2000, right wing politicians in the Netherlands generally opposed homosexuality, but as of 2011 show support of homosexuality and oppose anti-gay attitudes in immigrant groups, stating that the country has a "Dutch tradition of tolerance" for homosexuality.<ref name="Buijsetal633"/> ===United States=== ====McCarthy era==== [[Image:Joseph McCarthy.jpg|thumb|Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]]]] In the 1950s in the [[United States]], open homosexuality was taboo. Legislatures in every state had passed laws against homosexual behavior well before this, most notably [[Sodomy laws in the United States|anti-sodomy laws]]. Many politicians treated the homosexual as a symbol of antinationalism, construing masculinity as patriotism and marking the "unmasculine" homosexual as a threat to national security. This perceived connection between homosexuality and antinationalism was present in [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|Nazi Germany]] and [[Gay rights in Russia|Soviet Russia]]<ref>Healey, Dan. ''Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia: The Regulation of Sexual and Gender Dissent''. University of Chicago Press. 2001. p. 209.</ref> as well, and appears in contemporary politics to this day.<ref name="autogenerated2001"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4966024.stm|title=BBC NEWS – Europe – Moscow's anti-gay protesters held|work=bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] used accusations of homosexuality as a [[smear tactic]] in his [[McCarthyism|anti-Communist crusade]], often combining the [[Second Red Scare]] with the [[Lavender Scare]]. On one occasion, he went so far as to announce to reporters, "If you want to be against McCarthy, boys, you've got to be either a Communist or a cocksucker."<ref>Cuordileone, K. A. "'Politics in an Age of Anxiety': Cold War Political Culture and the Crisis in American Masculinity, 1949–1960" ''The Journal of American History'' 87 (2) (2000): 515–545</ref> Senator [[Kenneth S. Wherry|Kenneth Wherry]] likewise attempted to invoke some connection between homosexuality and antinationalism as, for example, when he said in an interview with [[Max Lerner]] that "You can't hardly separate homosexuals from subversives." Later in that same interview he draws the line between patriotic Americans and gay men: "But look Lerner, we're both Americans, aren't we? I say, let's get these fellows [closeted gay men in government positions] out of the government."<ref>Lerner, Max, ''The Unfinished Country: A Book of American Symbols'' Simon and Schuster, 1959 pp 313–316</ref> [[File:Boys beware.ogv|thumb|left|The film ''[[Boys Beware]]'' (1961)]] There were other perceived connections between homosexuality and Communism. Wherry publicized fears that [[Joseph Stalin]] had obtained a list of closeted homosexuals in positions of power from [[Adolf Hitler]], which he believed Stalin intended to use to blackmail these men into working against the U.S. for the Soviet regime.<ref>Von Hoffman, Nicholas, ''Citizen Cohn'' Doubleday, 1988, pp 130</ref> In the [[Hoey Report|1950 report]] produced by a Senate subcommittee titled "Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government" said that "the pervert is easy prey to the blackmailer.... It is an accepted fact among intelligence agencies that espionage organizations the world over consider sex perverts who are in possession of or have access to confidential material to be prime targets where pressure can be exerted." Along with that security-based concern, the report found homosexuals unsuitable for government employment because "those who engage in overt acts of perversion lack the emotional stability of normal persons. In addition there is an abundance of evidence to sustain the conclusion that indulgence in acts of sex perversion weakens the moral fiber of an individual to a degree that he is not suitable for a position of responsibility."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/context/employment.html|title=Who's Gay? What's Straight? – Employment Of Homosexuals And Other Sex Perverts In Government (1950) – Assault On Gay America – FRONTLINE – PBS|work=pbs.org}}</ref> McCarthy and [[Roy Cohn]] more often used the secrets of closeted gay American politicians as tools for blackmail than did foreign powers.<ref>Von Hoffman, Nicholas, ''Citizen Cohn'' Doubleday, 1988</ref> ====LGBT civil rights movement==== {{Main|LGBT movements in the United States}} Beginning in the 20th century, [[LGBT rights]] movements have led to changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of same-gender relationships. The legalization of [[same-sex marriage]] and non-gender-specific [[civil union]]s is one of the major goals of gay rights supporters. (See also [[LGBT rights organization]].) Attitudes toward homosexuality have changed in developed societies in the latter part of the 20th century, accompanied by a greater acceptance of gay people into both secular and religious institutions. Some opponents of the movement say the term ''LGBT civil rights'' is a [[misnomer]] and an attempt to piggyback on the civil rights movement. Rev. [[Jesse Lee Peterson]], for example, called the comparison of the civil rights movement to the "gay rights movement" a "disgrace to a black American". He said that "homosexuality is not a civil right. What we have is a bunch of radical homosexuals trying to attach their agenda to the struggles of the 1960s,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0403/07/sm.02.html|title=CNN.com – Transcripts|work=cnn.com}}</ref> while Jesse Jackson has said "Gays were never called three-fifths human in the Constitution." Gene Rivers, a Boston minister, has accused gays of "pimping" the civil rights movement.<ref>[http://www.blackcommentator.com/110/110_fr_gay_civil_rights.html Kimberly, Margaret, "Freedom Rider: Gay Rights, Civil Rights" at The Black Commentator] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060321080341/http://www.blackcommentator.com/110/110_fr_gay_civil_rights.html |date=21 March 2006 }}</ref> On the other, the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP), a leading organization during the civil rights movement in the United States, and many anti-apartheid leaders in South Africa, such as [[Desmond Tutu]], have made clear their support for LGBT rights and equate it with other human rights and civil rights movements.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2012/may/19/nation/la-na-nn-naacp-gay-marriage-20120519 |title=NAACP endorses same-sex marriage, says it's a civil right |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=2012-05-19 |accessdate=2013-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gray |first=Stephen |url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2012/07/20/desmond-tutu-anti-gay-laws-as-wrong-as-apartheid/ |title=Desmond Tutu: Anti-gay laws 'as wrong as apartheid' |publisher=PinkNews.co.uk |accessdate=2013-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/desmond-tutu/religion-homosexuality_b_874804.html |title=Desmond Tutu: All Are God's Children: On Including Gays and Lesbians in the Church and Society |publisher=The Huffington Post |accessdate=2013-09-01}}</ref> ====Statistics==== {{see also|Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States}} 73% of the general public in the United States in 2001 stated that they knew someone who is [[gay]], [[lesbian]], or [[bisexual]].<ref name="kff">{{cite web |url=http://www.kff.org/kaiserpolls/3193-index.cfm |title=New Surveys on Experiences of Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals and the Public's Views Related to Sexual Orientation |accessdate=2007-02-21}}</ref> This is the result of a steady increase from 1983 when there were 24%, 43% in 1993, 55% in 1998, or 62% in 2000. The percentage of the general public who say there is more acceptance of [[LGBT|LGB]] people in 2001 than before was 64%. Acceptance was measured on many different levels—87% of the general public would shop at a store owned by someone who is gay or lesbian but only 46% of the general public would attend a [[church body|church]] or [[synagogue]] where a [[minister (religion)|minister]] or [[rabbi]] is openly gay or lesbian. A 2011 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]] showed that 60% of U.S. adults think homosexuality should be accepted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/11/17/the-american-western-european-values-gap/#homosexuality |title=The American-Western European Values Gap |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Global Attitudes Project |date=17 November 2011 |accessdate=2013-09-01}}</ref> Males and people over 65 years old are more likely to think it is wrong. Among people who do not know someone who is LGB, 61% think the behavior is wrong. Broken down by religion, 60% of [[Evangelicalism|evangelical Christians]] think that it is wrong, whereas 11% with no [[religious affiliation]] are against it. 57% of the general public think that [[gays and lesbians]] experience a lot of [[prejudice]] and [[discrimination]], making it the group most believed to experience prejudice and discrimination. Black Americans come in second at 42%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kff.org/kaiserpolls/3193-index.cfm|title=New Surveys on Experiences of Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals and the Public's Views Related to Sexual Orientation – The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation|work=kff.org}}</ref> In terms of support of public policies, according to the same 2001 study, 76% of the general public thought that there should be laws to protect gay and lesbian people from job discrimination, 74% from housing discrimination, 73% for inheritance rights, 70% support health and other employee benefits for domestic partners, 68% supported social security benefits, and 56% supported GL people openly serving in the military. 73% favored [[sexual orientation]] being included in the hate crimes statutes. 39% supported [[same-sex marriage]], while 47% supported [[civil unions]], and 46% supported [[gay adoption|adoption rights]]. A poll conducted in 2013 showed a record high of 58% of the American people supporting legal recognition for same-sex marriage.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kludt, Tom|url=http://livewire.talkingpointsmemo.com/entry/poll-new-high-of-58-percent-support-same?ref=fpb|title=Poll:New High Of 58 Percent Support Same-Sex Marriage|publisher=livewire.talkingpointsmemo.com|date=18 March 2013|accessdate=11 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-fix/wp/2013/03/18/gay-marriage-support-hits-new-high-in-post-abc-poll/|title=Gay marriage support hits new high in Post-ABC poll |publisher=The Washington Post |date=18 March 2013|accessdate=11 April 2013}}</ref> A separate study shows that, in the United States, the younger generation is more supportive of [[gay rights]] than average, and that there is growing support for LBGT rights. In 2011, for the first time, a majority of Americans supported the legalization of [[same-sex marriage in the United States|same-sex marriage]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=McCarthy|first1=Justin|title=Same-Sex Marriage Support Reaches New High at 55%|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/169640/sex-marriage-support-reaches-new-high.aspx|website=Gallup.com|publisher=Gallup|accessdate=15 February 2015}}</ref> In 2012, President [[Barack Obama]] voiced support for gay marriage, and in the November elections, [[Maine Question 1, 2012|three states]] [[Maryland Question 6|voted to legalize gay marriage]] [[Washington Referendum 74|at the ballot box]] for the first time in history<ref>{{cite news |agency=Religion News Service |author=Lauren Markoe |date=8 November 2012 |title=Election 2012 Shows A Social Sea Change On Gay Marriage |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/08/election-2012-gay-marriage-sea-change_n_2090106.html |publisher=The Huffington Post |accessdate=8 December 2014}}</ref> while an [[Minnesota Amendment 1|attempt to restrict same-sex marriage]] was rejected. In 2016, 55% of U.S. citizens supported same sex marriage and 37% opposed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/05/12/changing-attitudes-on-gay-marriage/|title=Changing Attitudes on Gay Marriage|date=2016-05-12|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=2016-12-12}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|LGBT}} *[[Biphobia]] *[[Gay bashing]] *[[Heterosexism]] *[[Media portrayal of bisexuality]] *[[Structural abuse]] *[[Sociology of gender]] *[[Status of same-sex marriage]] ==References== {{reflist|30em}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Buijs | first1 = Laurens | last2 = Hekma | first2 = Gert | author2-link = Gert Hekma | last3 = Willem Duyvendak | first3 = Jan | year = 2011 | title = 'As long as they keep away from me': The paradox of antigay violence in a gay-friendly country | url = http://sexualities.sagepub.com/content/14/6/632.abstract | journal = [[Sexualities (journal)|Sexualities]] | volume = 14 | issue = 6 | pages = 632–652 | doi = 10.1177/1363460711422304 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120919155330/http://sexualities.sagepub.com/content/14/6/632.abstract | archivedate = 19 September 2012 | df = dmy-all }} {{LGBT|social=expanded}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Societal Attitudes Toward Homosexuality}} [[Category:Sexual orientation and society]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]]'