Resilience, agency and activism: Viewing Yoshiko Yamaguchi through the feminist life course perspective

Women in Japan are significantly under-represented in politics and other senior management positions due to a range of structural constraints and entrenched traditional attitudes which have continued to limit women's role to the “private sphere” (Eto, 2010, Lebra, 2007, Pharr, 1990). These attitudes are reflected when female politicians are treated as transitory intruders in a male-dominated field and restricted to positions which reflect gender-role stereotypes. To overcome the limitations imposed by the political culture, patriarchal attitudes and social norms (Bochel & Bochel, 2006, 376), female politicians must have a certain level of skill and knowledge and be presented with opportunities that they can take advantage of. Exercising agency within this context becomes a fundamental method to achieve political empowerment, but the embedded nature of women's disadvantage means that only a small number of female politicians have had the ability (or inclination) to challenge the status quo and influence the direction of social change.

This paper explores ‘outlier’ Yoshiko Yamaguchi (hereinafter Yoshiko),¹ whose experiences as a cross-cultural film star, ‘diva’ and political journalist provide a unique backdrop to her long lived political career in the House of Councilors as a member of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). Her political career spanned eighteen years (1974–1992), whereas the careers of more recent female celebrity candidates are typically short-lived. The significant gender gap in both the LDP and Japan's political system remains, despite recent government efforts to address this issue, including Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's commitment to create a society where “all women shine” (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2015). Yoshiko is an important example as she was able to overcome considerable structural constraints and act with her own agency to shape her life course at a time when there were few female politicians.

Yoshiko's film career has been of growing interest to academics (Coates, 2014, Stephensen, 2002, Wang, 2012) and in popular culture with a novel, “China Lover” by Ian Buruma (2008), a play (1992), television drama (1989) and a long-running musical (1991–2006) inspired by her life. However, there is little scholarship on her political career and how her early experiences influenced her entry into politics. This disparity is evident in the many obituaries and tributes after her death in September 2014 which focus on her film career, particularly propaganda films, with only a cursory mention of her political career (see Japan Times Online, 2014, Macy, 2014, McDonough, 2014). Drawing on Yoshiko's recollections in her autobiography Ri Koran: watashi no hansei (1987) and the translation Fragrant Orchid: The Story of my Early Life (2015), this paper presents a close study of Yoshiko from a life course perspective to illustrate how women's choices are shaped and constrained by historical, social and cultural contexts. Yoshiko changed her name several times at important life transitions as she renegotiated her identity in different contexts and cultures. This analysis is structured around these transitions, from early childhood (Yoshiko Yamaguchi/Pan Shuhua), as a Chinese actress (Li Xianglan), Japanese actress (Yoshiko Yamaguchi), Hollywood star (Shirley Yamaguchi) and as a wife, journalist and politician (Yoshiko Ōtaka).

Viewing Yoshiko's life course through a feminist lens, it is evident that her status as a woman led to additional challenges as various macrosociocultural contexts constrained her access to resources and opportunities. The integration of feminist and life course theories provides a distinct framework that recognises the unique gendered challenges that Yoshiko faced and illustrates her adaptability and agency as key factors in overcoming these obstacles. This analysis draws on the six main principles of the life course defined by Elder (1998): (1) cultural and historical contexts; (2) timing of lives; (3) interdependent lives; (4) human agency; (5) diversity and heterogeneity; and (6) the influence of the past on future experiences.

Human agency is particularly important because it acknowledges an individual's capacity to exert control over self-experiences, formulate and act towards long-term outcomes and influence the life course trajectory (Hitlin & Elder, 2007, 182–183). There is a level of complexity as choices are made within systems of constraint and opportunity that depend on external factors such as socioeconomic circumstances and context. To transcend these limitations one must possess resourcefulness, personal competence and the expectation or belief that one can personally achieve one's goals (Bandura, 2006, 170–171). Agency is also exercised by influencing more powerful individuals to act on one's behalf (proxy agency) or when people work together to achieve common goals (collective agency) (Bandura, 2006, 165). Cultivation of one's competency and agenic capabilities becomes a key way to determine one's future and remain resilient in the face of adversity.

Yoshiko's agency is a recurrent theme here because her ability to successfully implement strategies to shape her life path and achieve outside of prescribed social norms make her a positive role model for women in Japan. This analysis provides vital information about the importance of education and role models in supporting women's empowerment and agency. Yoshiko is a distinctive case as her early life experiences helped her develop a strong belief in self-efficacy and she overcame various structural and gendered barriers to her participation through her dexterity in enacting agency by using available opportunities for personal development and to achieve her own goals as a politician and activist.