PLATO Other totalitarians, however, have usurped him as their first intellectual ancestor due to the fact that the Republic is explicitly undemocratic or outright antidemocratic. Introduction main contribution to the western civilization lies in the taming of man and nature through reason. Before, advanced people had learned to live with nature depending from it, through observation and applying them to gainful purposes. But the beliefs in demons and myths never lost its existence. Greeks were NOT the first to think about this, but they were the first to develop the scientific attitude. Scientific attitude an approach that constitutes one of the distinctive elements of western life. In the field of human relations, Greeks discovered the scientific study of politics. The political thought was a mixture of legend, myth, theology, and and independent reasoning. This served as a means to a higher end, thus creating what is now known as religion. Monotheism the idea of a is deeply rooted in the conception of one God as transmitted through the Bible. Polytheism religious pluralism reflected the inability to transcend the confines of a Plato never starts out with the hypothesis of a homo politicus Plato also introduced the concept of the as distinct from the in the context of governmental relations. As a Greek, Plato, was NOT aware of the opposing ideas of individual and (or, sometimes versus) the because was a spiritual and religious unity, as well as a social, economic, and political one. The Jewish and Christian religions separated soul from his quality as a citizen, an inalienable and indestructible human spirit outside the domain of government. In the polytheistic religions of the gods were community of gods. Before, the only dichotomy to man was that between the and the Athens, Greece A land in the ancient Greece that was surrounded water. It was the cradle of western civilization and an epitome of a at the ancient times. Back in time, it was difficult to elect a leader, because no one want to take in charge. They believed that this responsibility was a huge burden. Most of them were the sophists. Sophists educated individuals who initiated the education in the Sophists want to burden themselves answering questions. They believed that truth and morality were relative. Socrates, on the other hand, believed that rationality and objective reasoning must be used to discover the real absolute truth. After the Athenians lost the Peloponnesian War against the Spartans, they questioned their system, one of whom was Plato. The Bible contained rules in favor of workers, debtors, women, children, and the poor (e. the concept of covenant) The three chief tributaries to the mainstream of western civilization: 1. Political and social ethics 2. Christian principle of love 3. Greek principle of rationalism The first work that deserves to be called political science is Republic No other writer on politics has equaled Plato (427347 B.) The most revolutionary assumptions of the Republic states the right kind of government and politics use rigorous and rational analysis rather than product of fear and faith, indolence and improvisation. have conceded to Plato that political and social issues can be clarified argument rather than force and dogma. Socrates teacher and main figure in the Republic. He is called modern totalitarians as the Social The Republic Republic is one of the most important works about philosophy and politics in history. It was written Plato, one of Socrates students in ancient Greece, and is a dialogue about justice and political systems. Justice Justice must be looked at on an individual, as well as a level. Defining justice without much ambiguity is difficult as it is improbable to say what is just only looking at an individual or a level alone. Given this, Plato (and Socrates) came up with his own idea of a just and ideal state: minding own business. This has both an individual and a communal aspect to it. It means that everyone should take responsibility for their own role within society, thus benefitting themselves and the city as a whole. However, NOT everyone is suited for every role all must consider their individual skills, as well as what the society needs, to determine it. Rulers Gymnastics Music Guardians Producers (Ruling class) Auxilliary Mathematics Astronomy (Military Class) (Merchant class) Rhetoric and public administration Gymnastics teaches how to overcome fear and pleasure Music teaches moral and discipline Mathematics study of the abstract Astronomy study of the world beyond In an ideal state, individual and societal needs are intertwined and they work in a symbiosis to make life better for everyone. According to Plato, an ideal state possessed the four cardinal virtues: 1. Wisdom the knowledge of both self and political prudence. Rulers are expected to be wise. 2. Courage the virtue associated with the ability to overcome fear pleasure. Guardians are expected to be courageous. 3. Temperance a virtue of and obedience to authority. All are expected to be wise. 4. Justice performing particular job and staying in position. All are expected to be just. After defining justice, Socrates goes on to use something called the to give people something to believe in, which will keep social harmony intact. Noble lie can be a myth or a story, often of religious nature, presented a leader as true to guide their followers, even though NOT, but with good intent. theory of soul is one of those noble lies, which suggests both cities and souls have three distinct parts: 1. Reason the golden part of the soul, predominant in city rulers, who create just laws and rule their city with reason and logic, overseeing everything and maintaining order. 2. Spirit the mediator between emotions and reason, the silver part of the soul, represents the army, which keeps order during times of peace and tries to restore it in times of war. 3. Desire the bronze part of our soul, concerned with natural wants and needs, (e. food, sleep, and sex). This represents the farmers, craft workers, and other more basic roles in society. We find courage in the spiritual and rational parts of the while temperance in all. While the three parts dominate certain individuals in their respective roles, every single individual has the same three parts in their own soul. We all have a rational side, a spiritual side and an emotional one and they balance each other. Philosopher King Allegory of the Cave Imagine a cave where people are chained to the wall and have been so all of their lives, facing another wall they stare at all day. Behind them, people pass items in front of a fire, casting shadows on the wall the prisoners see, thus creating their reality for them. If one of the prisoners were to break free and leave the cave, first be terrified the sunlight and the outside world, but then conclude better outside and try to drag out the other prisoners which they will likely refuse and maybe even attempt to kill their savior, for they think going outside is worth the risk of getting blinded the sun. Parts of Soul A just man has a rightly ordered soul. Both and souls can be divided into three distinct parts. If reason is the golden part of the soul and what gets cities to be governed in a just way, then it naturally follows that kings should be philosophers and philosophers should be kings. This means that all are born within this cave, but some of us manage to get out, see the sunlight and For Plato, unity is an ideal to which almost anything else was to be sacrificed, the happiness of the rulers as well as the ruled. But for Aristotle however, excessive unity is dangerous, for it would be the destruction of the state. Aristotle found that the counterweight to such extreme and perfectionist view pointed toward relativism and pluralism. Aristotle holds to consider NOT only what form of government is best, but also what is possible and easily attainable. Aristotle distinguishes governments that are carried on with a view to the common interest from those that are serve for private interests, whether of one, of few, or many. Three forms of governments: 1. the rule of one virtuous ruler and one of perfect forms of state, together with Aristocracy. deep sympathy for monarchy is to be understood in the light of his relations with the rising Macedonian monarchy. A rationality benefits the whole state. 2. Aristocracy the virtuous rule of the few that are morally and intellectually superior, and govern in the interest of the entire population, and a perfect form of state. 3. Government the virtuous rule of all. It combines elements of oligarchy (i. wealth of the rich) and democracy (i. freedom of the poor), where compromises between the rich and the poor can be made. It should be the constitution for most states, and the best life for most It is practicable because it follows the rule of law The masses are granted citizenship and govern with interest in mind. Citizenship is the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state. In relation to polity, Aristotle states that poverty is the parent of revolution and crime. The mean between the oligarchy and democracy is the a polity. The mean between the rule of the wealthy and the rule of the poor is the rule of the middle class. Aristotle was to opposed to selfish class rule of either excessively wealthy plutocracy or a propertyless proletariat thus, the best political community is formed citizens of the middle class. Rule of Law Although the human law cannot attain perfect justice, the rule of the law is preferable to that of any individual. The concept of the rule of law became one of the dominant political ideas to come forth from the Middle Ages. In modern times, this concept become one of the pillars of a constitutional state. The Three forms of governments: 1. Tyranny the corrupt form of a monarchy. It is ruled a ruler, with complete disregard of everyone else. 2. Oligarchy the corrupt form of an aristocracy. It is ruled a few wealthy individuals, who disregard the less fortunate. 3. Democracy the corrupt form of a polity. Nobody in a democracy is willing to compromise to find a solution to any existing problem. The people in power try to meet their own needs rather than the common good. This, according to Aristotle, ultimately results in the breakdown in the process of government and eventually results in its collapse. Democracy is the most tolerable in all forms of a perverse state. It characterized popular sovereignty and individual liberty. Slavery Aristotle assumes that nature is universally ruled the contrast of the superior and inferior (e. man is superior to the animals, male to the female, the soul to the body, reason to passion). The rule of the superior is an advantage to both. Aristotle concedes to slaves the mental ability of apprehending the rational actions and orders of their masters but denies them the ability to act rationally on their own initiative. He compares slaves to tame animals. Though many were slaves law rather than nature, particularly those who were reduced to slavery force, custom, and utility that had little to do with moral superiority. Property Aristotle denies that private property is a threat to moral perfection The incentive and progress argument. He links the idea of with threat of social progress through greater individual effort and competence. The pleasure that this ownership gives. He considers it rather from the viewpoint of selfrespect and material The idea of liberality Under common ownership, no one can afford to practice generosity and liberality because of the excessive equalization of property. The Burkean argument There must be something deeply and enduringly human in the idea of a private property, if it existed for such a long time. In this argument, private property is the foundation of a just social order and the spur to personal industry and national prosperity. Though private property can promote evils in men, equality of property is NOT the cure to their wicked nature but the moral improvement of man. Nonetheless, he realizes that excessive inequalities of wealth are dangerous to the balance and harmony of the state. He praises the advantages of a society in which middle classes are strongest. In contrast, a polity is impossible to maintain as the state will be ruled one of the two extremes. Theory of State The destruction of Roman power in the fifth century was more than a political revolution. decline started in the growing betrayal of its pristine civic virtues and the abandonment of republicanism in favor of despotic, monarchical imperialism. The unwillingness or inability to solve the social conflicts had contributed to the weakening of the Roman empire. As an earthly city, it was bound to fall and only has a temporary peace When Rome was sacked the Visigoths in A. 410, many believed that it was fault. The refusal of Christians to recognize loyalty to Rome as the first loyalty must have appeared to many as an disloyalty. Old school romans were NOT deeply interested in religions. They believed that If one substitutes for paganism, he is subject to contempt for spiritual values, smugness, pride, and injustice. St. Augustine was interested in God, faith, and Salvation, and NOT so much in the organization of the state and its relations to the church. Therefore, his heavenly city, or City of God is NOT identical with the church, and the earthly city is NOT the state. As a theologian, Augustine was concerned more with ways of life and NOT with organization of life. The great struggle therefore is between the opposing ways of life, in the earthly city, the love of self, the lust of power predominates, In the heavenly city, the love of God, to the contempt of is the foundation of order. He divides the human race in two parts: 1. consists of those who live according to man who will suffer eternal punishment with the devil 2. consists of those who live according to God who are predestined to reign eternally with God. ST. AUGUSTINE Introduction as long as members were willing to make a formal gesture of loyalty to the ultimate authority of Rome, there was no cause for discord and conflict. When Rome sought to eradicate Christianity force in the second half of the century, it was NOT against Christianity as a religion but against its alleged attempt to build up a state within the state infiltration and ideological appeals without overt acts of force. But the triumph of Christianity was inevitable providential. When Christianity became the religion of the state, paganism was put on the defensive position and was finally outlawed. St. Augustine (A. is a native of Roman North Africa, a convert, and yet, his works has become a strong reaffirmation of the Christian idealism. He was made the Bishop of Hippo (modern day Buna Algeria) in 395, until his death in 430. He started the City of God in 413 and finished it in 426. Kinds of Cities St. Augustine clarified that these two communities can be called cities only in a mystical or allegorical sense. Though, they agreed that was the necessary result of this unitary principle because it embodies rile of the universe. Two sources of the medieval nourishment and vitality: 1. Christianity 2. Antiquity It was easy to reconcile these two sources in the early medieval period, because: 1. The classical thought was mainly kept alive in isolated islands, while the major ideological conflicts were between the church and heresy, and NOT between theology and philosophy. 2. philosophy, which fit the mood and temper of the Christian thinking was the more dominant influence, whereas Aristotle played a minor part. St. Augustine was a Platonist in intellect, personality, character, and style. Since the church became more and more a political organization, the original Augustinian concept of the Christian community being a community of the Elect and the direct participation of the Christian individual in divine grace and salvation were relegated into the background. As humanistic studies spread in the Middle Age, classical knowledge became accessible and people were devoted to the construction of a unified system of though in which faith and reason would be reconciled in harmony and lasting accord. Medieval scholasticism was the first great attempt to unite philosophy and theology, where the principle unity was the primacy of religion over philosophy. Tertullian (A. one of the early church Fathers, has declared that Christianity and philosophy were utterly irresponsible, and that religious belief should be based on simplicity of heart and NOT on subtlety of intellect. contrast, St. Augustine was NOT opposed to philosophy and said that reasoning originates in the act of faith. In result, the theology enthroned, and both his philosophy and political thought are essentially theology speculation in content, expression, and symbolism. From the ninth to the thirteenth century, scholasticism was the predominant pattern of thought. Most philosophical writers nurtured to church doctrine and their one principle was that reason should never contradict faith. Thus before the argument starts, the writer knows the answer. In this respect, the search for truth loses the dynamic and evolutionary quality of Greek philosophy. The authoritative sources of the scholastic philosophers were the Bible, and relatively few known works of Greek and Roman Antiquity. Revealed doctrine was the main source of chosen topic, and dogma was the method of regulation and control of philosophical writing. Scholastic philosophy reached its golden age in the 13th century, which was also the peak of papal power. The Aristotelian philosophy was rediscovered in the 13th century, and it moved from toleration into official acceptance. Another main reason to the triumph of Aristotle was due to the influence of St. Thomas Aquinas (c. Aquinas was born at Roccasecca, a family castle between Rome and Naples. He was brought up the Benedictines and at an age of eighteen, he joined the Dominican order. With St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas is one of two leaders in the development of church doctrine. Augustinianism is the fusion of Plato and Christianity, Thomism is the synthesis of Aristotle and Christianity. The victory of Thomism over Augustinianism was final commitment of the church in an institutional, rational, and legal viewpoint. This victory is important because: 1. It shows that the most decisive issue in philosophical evolution of the church was the dialogue between Plato and Aristotle. 2. It throws the light on the adaptability and high survival capacity of the church. be born, the church needed Plato. To last, it needed Aristotle. Their Augustinianism was later championed the Protestant reformers, who opposed the Thomism, because it is too logical and less personal. without Aristotle can we become Martin Luther St. Thomas approach to the problem of faith and reason was a concession to rationalism. He believed that faith and knowledge were divine in therefore, conflict between them could never be real, only apparent. is NOT contrary to reason but above The results of faith are more certain than those of reason because it is based on direct revelation of God, who is closer to the source of all truth than the human based philosophy. If proved rationally, faith could become philosophy. It could NOT be intellectually proved but accepted an act of will, neither can it be disproved , for example, philosophy. St. Thomas represents a high point of equilibrium of the religious and rational motifs. However, after St. Thomas, and as early as the 14th century, the balance begins to move in the direction of rationalism, the cradle of Renaissance. Theory of State and Man Scholasticism is the method of argument in St. Summa Theologica. Philosophy as the handmaiden of theology is exemplified in the substance of Scholasticism and in its method of argument. The medieval theory of the state viewed the origin of political associations of government as the result of sin and evil. St. Thomas meets this Augustinian argument interpreting the concept of dominion in two ways 1. If dominion refers to slavery, St. Thomas concede that there is no slaver in the state of nature. 2. If dominion refers to the office of governing and directing free men, it is compatible with the state of innocence. St. two reasons for the necessity of government 1. is naturally a social being and so in the state of innocence he would gave lead a social This means that there must be some organization of social life, government emerges as the specific organ of looking after the common good. 2. If one man surpasses other in knowledge and justice, it would be wrong to disregard such superiority for the benefit of all. Thus, he bases it on social nature, and the organization of government on the superior wisdom and morality of the ruler for the benefit of the ruled. Man is social and political. He agrees with Aristotle that social impulse is the origin of the state and the good life its purpose. But, he was dissatisfied with the community as the ultimate point of reference and source of spiritual values. virtuous living man is further ordained to a higher end, which consists in the enjoyment of The extrinsic good does NOT exist in man himself and that is yet the supreme value. Kingship If man and society could attain this supreme end human power, the king (as the supreme representative of human power) could guide them in the right direction. But, only with the divine power can the possession of God be attained. The ministry of the kingdom of God is NOT in the hands of earthly kings but of priests and above all to Christ himself. St. Thomas identifies unity with peace, therefore one ruler is most likely to maintain the peace that goes with complete unity than a government made up of several persons that might endanger social peace and stability through disagreement. Tyranny The worst kind of government that it is united the love of man. To delimit monarchy so that it will degenerate to tyranny, Aquinas prefers elective to hereditary kingship, where both the papacy and empire were ruled elective heads. He suggests that the power be so tempered that he cannot easily fall into tyranny. He also views the idea of mixed constitution in which monarchy is supplement aristocratic and popular elements of participation. Two types of Tyranny 1. Minor tyranny Hasty action against this tyrant may unleash unforeseen consequences worse than the evil to be remedied. For example, a revolutionary resistance, if successful is likely to lead to even worse tyranny, because the leader of the victorious revolution fears to suffer from another revolution, oppresses the subjects with an even more grievous slavery. 2. Excessive tyranny Regarding excessive tyranny that becomes unbearable, St. Thomas does NOT endorse tyrannicide. If any action is to be taken, it can be done only through the high or public authority. If the worst tyrant ca not be eradicated, pray to God.

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PLATO

Introduction

Greek’s main contribution to the western

civilization lies in the taming of man and nature

through reason.

Before, advanced people had learned to live with

nature by depending from it, through observation

and applying them to gainful purposes.

But the beliefs in demons and myths never lost its

existence.

Greeks were NOT the first to think about this, but

they were the first to develop the scientific attitude.

Scientific attitude – an approach that constitutes one

of the distinctive elements of western life.

In the field of human relations, Greeks discovered

the scientific study of politics.

The pre-Greek political thought was a mixture of

legend, myth, theology, and allegory; and

independent reasoning.

This served as a means to a higher end, thus

creating what is now known as religion.

Monotheism – the idea of a “one world” is deeply

rooted in the conception of one God as transmitted

through the Bible.

Polytheism – religious pluralism reflected the

inability to transcend the confines of a city-state.

The Bible contained rules in favor of workers,

debtors, women, children, and the poor (e.g. the

concept of covenant)

The three chief tributaries to the mainstream of

western civilization:

1. Political and social ethics

2. Christian principle of love

3. Greek principle of rationalism

The first work that deserves to be called political

science is Plato’s Republic

No other writer on politics has equaled Plato (427-

347 B.C.)

The most revolutionary assumptions of the

Republic states the right kind of government and

politics use rigorous and rational analysis rather

than product of fear and faith, indolence and

improvisation.

Anti-Platonists have conceded to Plato that political

and social issues can be clarified by argument

rather than by force and dogma.



Socrates – Plato’s teacher and main figure in the

Republic. He is called by modern totalitarians as the

“first Social Democrat”.



Other totalitarians, however, have usurped him as

their first intellectual ancestor due to the fact that

the



Republic is explicitly undemocratic or outright

antidemocratic.



Plato never starts out with the hypothesis of a homo

politicus (“political man”)



Plato also introduced the concept of the “public” as

distinct from the “private” in the context of

governmental relations.



As a Greek, Plato, was NOT aware of the opposing

ideas of individual and (or, sometimes versus) the

state; because



city-state was a spiritual and religious unity, as well

as a social, economic, and political one.



The Jewish and Christian religions separated man’s

soul from his quality as a citizen, an inalienable and

indestructible human spirit outside the domain of

government.



In the polytheistic religions of the city-states, gods

were community of gods.



Before, the only dichotomy to man was that

between the “sacred” and the “profane”.

Athens, Greece

A land in the ancient Greece that was surrounded by

water.

It was the cradle of western civilization and an

epitome of a city-state at the ancient times.

Back in time, it was difficult to elect a leader,

because no one didn’t want to take in charge.

They believed that this responsibility was a huge

burden. Most of them were the sophists.



Sophists – educated individuals who initiated the

education in the city-state.



Sophists didn’t want to burden themselves

answering “useless” questions. They believed that

truth and morality were relative.



Socrates, on the other hand, believed that rationality

and objective reasoning must be used to discover

the real absolute truth.



After the Athenians lost the Peloponnesian War

against the Spartans, they questioned their system,

one of whom was Plato.

The Republic

–Republic is one of the most important works

about philosophy and politics in history. It was

written by Plato, one of Socrates students in

ancient Greece, and is a dialogue about justice

and political systems.

Justice

Justice must be looked at on an individual, as well

as a city-state level.

Gymnastics

& Music

Guardians

Rulers

(Ruling class)

Mathematics

Astronomy

Auxilliary

(Military Class)

Producers

(Merchant class)

Defining justice without much ambiguity is difficult

as it is improbable to say what is just only by

looking at an individual or a city-state level alone.

Given this, Plato (and Socrates) came up with his

own idea of a just and ideal state: minding one’s

own business.

This has both an individual and a communal aspect

to it. It means that everyone should take

responsibility for their own role within society, thus

benefitting themselves and the city as a whole.

However, NOT everyone is suited for every role –

all must consider their individual skills, as well as

what the society needs, to determine it.

Rhetoric and public administration

Gymnastics – teaches how to overcome fear and

pleasure

Music – teaches moral and discipline

Mathematics – study of the abstract

Astronomy – study of the world beyond

In an ideal state, individual and societal needs are

intertwined and they work in a symbiosis to make

life better for everyone.

According to Plato, an ideal state possessed the four

cardinal virtues:

1. Wisdom – the knowledge of both self and

political prudence. Rulers are expected to

be wise.

2. Courage – the virtue associated with the

ability to overcome fear and/or pleasure.

Guardians are expected to be courageous.

3. Temperance – a virtue of self-restraint and

obedience to authority. All are expected to

be wise.

4. Justice – performing one’s particular job

and staying in one’s position. All are

expected to be just.

Parts of Soul

A just man has a rightly ordered soul.



Both city-states and souls can be divided into three

distinct parts.

After defining justice, Socrates goes on to use

something called the “noble lie” to give people

something to believe in, which will keep social

harmony intact.

Noble lie - can be a myth or a story, often of

religious nature, presented by a leader as true to

guide their followers, even though it’s NOT, but

with good intent.

Plato’s theory of soul is one of those noble lies,

which suggests both cities and people’s souls have

three distinct parts:

1. Reason – the golden part of the soul,

predominant in city rulers, who create just

laws and rule their city with reason and

logic, overseeing everything and

maintaining order.

2. Spirit – the mediator between emotions

and reason, the silver part of the soul,

represents the army, which keeps order

during times of peace and tries to restore

it in times of war.

3. Desire – the bronze part of our soul,

concerned with natural wants and needs,

(e.g. food, sleep, and sex). This represents

the farmers, craft workers, and other more

basic roles in society.

We find courage in the spiritual and rational parts

of the soul; while temperance in all.

While the three parts dominate certain individuals

in their respective roles, every single individual has

the same three parts in their own soul. We all have a

rational side, a spiritual side and an emotional one

and they balance each other.

Philosopher King

If reason is the golden part of the soul and it’s what

gets cities to be governed in a just way, then it

naturally follows that kings should be philosophers

and philosophers should be kings.

Allegory of the Cave

Imagine a cave where people are chained to the

wall and have been so all of their lives, facing

another wall they stare at all day. Behind them,

people pass items in front of a fire, casting shadows

on the wall the prisoners see, thus creating their

reality for them. If one of the prisoners were to break

free and leave the cave, he’d first be terrified by the

sunlight and the outside world, but then conclude

life’s better outside and try to drag out the other

prisoners – which they will likely refuse and maybe

even attempt to kill their savior, for they don’t think

going outside is worth the risk of getting blinded by

the sun.

This means that all are born within this cave, but

some of us manage to get out, see the sunlight and

thus the world as it really is. Those people are

philosophers, and though it’s NOT an easy job, it’s

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But for Aristotle however, excessive unity is

dangerous, for it would be the destruction of the

state.

Aristotle found that the counterweight to such

extreme and perfectionist view pointed toward

relativism and pluralism.

Aristotle holds to consider NOT only what form

of government is best, but also what is possible

and easily attainable.

Aristotle distinguishes governments that are

carried on with a view to the common interest

from those that are serve for private interests,

whether of one, of few, or many.

Three forms of true/natural governments:

1. Monarchy/Kingship – the rule of one

virtuous ruler and one of perfect forms of

state, together with Aristocracy.

• Aristotle’s deep sympathy for monarchy

is to be understood in the light of his

relations with the rising Macedonian

monarchy.

A king’s rationality benefits the

whole state.

2. Aristocracy – the virtuous rule of the few

that are morally and intellectually superior,

and govern in the interest of the entire

population, and a perfect form of state.

3. Polity/Constitutional Government – the

virtuous rule of all. It combines elements of

oligarchy (i.e. wealth of the rich) and

democracy (i.e. freedom of the poor), where

compromises between the rich and the poor

can be made. It should be the “best

constitution for most states, and the best life

for most men”.

It is practicable because it follows

the rule of law

• The masses are granted citizenship and

govern with everyone's interest in mind.

Citizenship – is the power to take part in

the deliberative or judicial administration of

any state.

• In relation to polity, Aristotle states that

poverty is the parent of revolution and

crime.

The mean between the oligarchy

and democracy is the a polity.

The mean between the rule of the

wealthy and the rule of the poor is

the rule of the middle class.

• Aristotle was to opposed to selfish class

rule of either excessively wealthy

plutocracy (“oligarchy”) or by a

propertyless proletariat (“democracy”);

thus, the best political community is formed

by citizens of the middle class.

Rule of Law

Although the human law cannot attain perfect

justice, the rule of the law is preferable to that of

any individual.

The concept of the rule of law became one of the

dominant political ideas to come forth from the

Middle Ages.

In modern times, this concept become one of the

pillars of a constitutional state.

The

Three forms of perverse/unnatural governments:

1. Tyranny – the corrupt form of a monarchy.

It is ruled by a self-interested ruler, with

complete disregard of everyone else.

2. Oligarchy – the corrupt form of an

aristocracy. It is ruled by a few wealthy

self-interested individuals, who disregard

the less fortunate.

3. Democracy – the corrupt form of a polity.

Nobody in a democracy is willing to

compromise to find a solution to any

existing problem. The people in power try

to meet their own needs rather than the

common good. This, according to Aristotle,

ultimately results in the breakdown in the

process of government and eventually

results in its collapse.

• Democracy is the most tolerable in all

forms of a perverse state.

• It characterized popular sovereignty and

individual liberty.

Slavery

Aristotle assumes that nature is universally ruled

by the contrast of the superior and inferior (e.g.

man is superior to the animals, male to the

female, the soul to the body, reason to passion).

The rule of the superior is an advantage to both.

Aristotle concedes to slaves the mental ability of

apprehending the rational actions and orders of

their masters but denies them the ability to act

rationally on their own initiative.

He compares slaves to tame animals.

Though many were slaves by law rather than

nature, particularly those who were reduced to

slavery by force, custom, and utility that had

little to do with moral superiority.

Property

Aristotle denies that private property is a threat to

moral perfection

– The incentive and progress argument.

He links the idea of self-interest with threat of

social progress through greater individual effort

and competence.

– The pleasure that this ownership gives.

He considers it rather from the viewpoint of self-

respect and material self-realization.

– The idea of liberality

Under common ownership, no one can afford to

practice generosity and liberality because of the

excessive equalization of property.

– The Burkean argument

There must be something deeply and enduringly

human in the idea of a private property, if it

existed for such a long time. In this argument,

private property is the foundation of a just social

order and the spur to personal industry and

national prosperity.

Though private property can promote evils in

men, equality of property is NOT the cure to

their wicked nature but the moral improvement

of man.

Nonetheless, he realizes that excessive

inequalities of wealth are dangerous to the

balance and harmony of the state.

He praises the advantages of a society in which

middle classes are strongest.

In contrast, a polity is impossible to maintain as

the state will be ruled by one of the two

extremes.

ST. AUGUSTINE

Introduction

The destruction of Roman power in the fifth

century was more than a political revolution.

Roman’s decline started in the growing betrayal

of its pristine civic virtues and the abandonment

of republicanism in favor of despotic,

monarchical imperialism.

The unwillingness or inability to solve the social

conflicts had contributed to the weakening of the

Roman empire.

As an earthly city, it was bound to fall and only

has a temporary peace

When Rome was sacked by the Visigoths in

A.D. 410, many believed that it was Christians’

fault.

The refusal of Christians to recognize loyalty to

Rome as the first loyalty must have appeared to

many as an “un-Roman” disloyalty.

Old school political-minded romans were NOT

deeply interested in religions. They believed that

as long as members were willing to make a

formal gesture of loyalty to the ultimate

authority of Rome, there was no cause for

discord and conflict.

When Rome sought to eradicate Christianity by

force in the second half of the century, it was

NOT against Christianity as a religion but

against its alleged attempt to build up a state

within the state by infiltration and ideological

appeals without overt acts of force.

But the triumph of Christianity was inevitable

providential.

When Christianity became the religion of the

state, paganism was put on the defensive

position and was finally outlawed.

St. Augustine (A.D. 354-430) is a native of

Roman North Africa, a convert, and yet, his

works has become a strong reaffirmation of the

Christian idealism.

He was made the Bishop of Hippo (modern day

Buna Algeria) in 395, until his death in 430.

He started the City of God in 413 and finished it

in 426.

Theory of State



If one substitutes for paganism, he is subject

to contempt for spiritual values, smugness,

pride, and injustice.

St. Augustine was interested in God, faith, and

Salvation, and NOT so much in the organization

of the state and its political-juridical relations to

the church.

Therefore, his heavenly city, or City of God is

NOT identical with the church, and the earthly

city is NOT the state.

As a theologian, Augustine was concerned more

with ways of life and NOT with organization of

life.

The great struggle therefore is between the

opposing ways of life, in the earthly city, the

love of self, the lust of power predominates,

whereas;

In the heavenly city, the love of God, “even to

the contempt of self”, is the foundation of order.



He divides the human race in two parts:

1. consists of those who live according to

man who will suffer eternal punishment

with the devil

2. consists of those who live according to

God who are predestined to reign

eternally with God.

Kinds of Cities



St. Augustine clarified that these two

communities can be called cities only in a

mystical or allegorical sense.

1. Heavenly City or the City of God

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Though, they agreed that Kingship/Monarchy was

the necessary result of this unitary principle because

it embodies God’s rile of the universe.

Two sources of the medieval mind’s nourishment

and vitality:

1. Christianity

2. Antiquity

It was easy to reconcile these two sources in the

early medieval period, because:

1. The classical thought was mainly kept

alive in isolated islands, while the major

ideological conflicts were between the

church and heresy, and NOT between

theology and philosophy.

2. Plato’s philosophy, which fit the mood

and temper of the Christian thinking was

the more dominant influence, whereas

Aristotle played a minor part.

St. Augustine was a Platonist in intellect,

personality, character, and style.

Since the church became more and more a

political organization, the original Augustinian

concept of the Christian community being a

community of the Elect and the direct

participation of the Christian individual in divine

grace and salvation were relegated into the

background.

As humanistic studies spread in the Middle Age,

classical knowledge became accessible and

people were devoted to the construction of a

unified system of though in which faith and

reason would be reconciled in harmony and

lasting accord.

Medieval scholasticism was the first great

attempt to unite philosophy and theology, where

the principle unity was the primacy of religion

over philosophy.



Tertullian (A.D. 160-220), one of the early

church Fathers, has declared that Christianity and

philosophy were utterly irresponsible, and that

religious belief should be based on simplicity of

heart and NOT on subtlety of intellect.



By contrast, St. Augustine was NOT opposed to

philosophy and said that reasoning originates in

the act of faith.

In result, the theology enthroned, and both his

philosophy and political thought are essentially

theology speculation in content, expression, and

symbolism.

From the ninth to the thirteenth century,

scholasticism was the predominant pattern of

thought.

Most philosophical writers nurtured to church

doctrine and their one principle was that reason

should never contradict faith.

Thus before the argument starts, the writer knows

the answer.

In this respect, the search for truth loses the

dynamic and evolutionary quality of Greek

philosophy.

The authoritative sources of the scholastic

philosophers were the Bible, and relatively few

known works of Greek and Roman Antiquity.

Revealed doctrine was the main source of chosen

topic, and dogma was the method of regulation

and control of philosophical writing.

Scholastic philosophy reached its golden age in

the 13th century, which was also the peak of papal

power.

The Aristotelian philosophy was rediscovered in

the 13th century, and it moved from toleration into

official acceptance.

Another main reason to the triumph of Aristotle

was due to the influence of St. Thomas Aquinas

(c. 1225-1274).

Aquinas was born at Roccasecca, a family castle

between Rome and Naples.

He was brought up by the Benedictines and at an

age of eighteen, he joined the Dominican order.

With St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas is one of

two leaders in the development of church

doctrine.

Augustinianism is the fusion of Plato and

Christianity, while;

Thomism is the synthesis of Aristotle and

Christianity.

The victory of Thomism over Augustinianism

was final commitment of the church in an

institutional, rational, and legal viewpoint.

This victory is important because:

1. It shows that the most decisive issue in

philosophical evolution of the church was

the dialogue between Plato and Aristotle.

2. It throws the light on the adaptability and

high survival capacity of the church.

“To be born, the church needed Plato. To last, it

needed Aristotle.

Their Augustinianism was later championed by

the Protestant reformers, who opposed the

Thomism, because it is too logical and less

personal.

“Only without Aristotle can we become

theologians.”

– Martin Luther

St. Thomas Aquinas’ approach to the problem of

faith and reason was a concession to rationalism.

He believed that faith and knowledge were divine

in origin; therefore, conflict between them could

never be real, only apparent.

“Faith is NOT contrary to reason but above

reason.”

The results of faith are more certain than those of

reason because it is based on direct revelation of

God, who is closer to the source of all truth than

the human based philosophy.

If proved rationally, faith could become

philosophy.

It could NOT be intellectually proved but

accepted by an act of will, neither can it be

disproved by, for example, philosophy.

St. Thomas represents a high point of equilibrium

of the religious and rational motifs.

However, after St. Thomas, and as early as the

14th century, the balance begins to move in the

direction of rationalism, the cradle of

Renaissance.

Theory of State and Man

Scholasticism is the method of argument in St.

Aquinas’ Summa Theologica.

Philosophy as the handmaiden of theology is

exemplified in the substance of Scholasticism

and in its method of argument.

The pre-Thomistic medieval theory of the state

viewed the origin of political associations of

government as the result of sin and evil.

St. Thomas meets this Augustinian argument by

interpreting the concept of dominion in two

ways

1. If dominion refers to slavery, St. Thomas

concede that there is no slaver in the state

of nature.

2. If dominion refers to the office of

governing and directing free men, it is

compatible with the state of innocence.

St. Thomas’s two reasons for the necessity of

government

1. “Man is naturally a social being and so in

the state of innocence he would gave lead

a social life”. This means that there must

be some organization of social life,

government emerges as the specific organ

of looking after the common good.

2. If one man surpasses other in knowledge

and justice, it would be wrong to

disregard such superiority for the benefit

of all.



Thus, he bases it on man’s social nature, and the

organization of government on the superior

wisdom and morality of the ruler for the benefit

of the ruled.

Man is social and political.

He agrees with Aristotle that man’s social

impulse is the origin of the state and the good

life its purpose.

But, he was dissatisfied with the community as

the ultimate point of reference and source of

spiritual values.

“Through virtuous living man is further ordained

to a higher end, which consists in the enjoyment

of God.”

The extrinsic good does NOT exist in man

himself and that is yet the supreme value.

Kingship

If man and society could attain this supreme end

by human power, the king (as the supreme

representative of human power) could guide

them in the right direction.

But, only with the divine power can the

possession of God be attained.

The ministry of the kingdom of God is NOT in

the hands of earthly kings but of priests and

above all to Christ himself.

St. Thomas identifies unity with peace, therefore

one ruler is most likely to maintain the peace

that goes with complete unity than a government

made up of several persons that might endanger

social peace and stability through disagreement.

Tyranny

The worst kind of government that it is united

by the love of man.

To delimit monarchy so that it will degenerate to

tyranny, Aquinas prefers elective to hereditary

kingship, where both the papacy and empire

were ruled by elective heads.

He suggests that the king’s power be so

tempered that he cannot easily fall into tyranny.

He also views the idea of mixed constitution in

which monarchy is supplement by aristocratic

and popular elements of participation.

Two types of Tyranny

1. Minor tyranny

Hasty action against this tyrant may unleash

unforeseen consequences worse than the evil to

be remedied.

For example, a revolutionary resistance, if

successful is likely to lead to even worse

tyranny, because the leader of the victorious

revolution fears to suffer from another

revolution, oppresses the subjects with an even

more grievous slavery.

2. Excessive tyranny

Regarding excessive tyranny that becomes

unbearable, St. Thomas does NOT endorse

tyrannicide.

If any action is to be taken, it can be done only

through the high or public authority.

If the worst tyrant ca not be eradicated, pray to

God.

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SOC SCI 2 LE1 REVIEWER

Social, Economic and Political Thought (Soc Sci 2)

University of the Philippines System

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University: University of the Philippines System

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