Design Implementation of An Autonomous Forklift PDF

Design & Implementation of An Autonomous Forklift
BY
ARJOO SHANEESH
Submitted as part fulfillment for the degree of
BEng (Hons) Mechatronics
University of Mauritius Faculty of Engineering

March 2012
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 1 : Advantages of AGVs........................................................................................ 2

1.1 Problem Definition & Aims.............................................................................. 2

1.2 System Description .......................................................................................... 3

1.3 Thesis Structure................................................................................................ 4

1.4CHAPTER 2 : LITTERATURE OVERVIEW ........................................................... 5

2.1

Introduction ................................................................................................. 5

2.2

Industrial Forklifts ....................................................................................... 5

2.3

Autonomous Navigation .............................................................................. 5

2.4

Sorting......................................................................................................... 7

2.5

Guide Tape AGV......................................................................................... 7

2.6

Trailer Loading AGV .................................................................................. 8

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN ................................................................ 10

CHAPTER 3 : Introduction .................................................................................................... 10

3.1 System Block Diagram ................................................................................... 10

3.2
3.2.1 Central PC ........................................................................................................... 10 3.2.2 Autonomous Forklift ........................................................................................... 11
System Flow Chart ......................................................................................... 13

3.3 Conceptual Design ......................................................................................... 15

3.4 Central PC Design .......................................................................................... 16

3.5
3.5.1 Sorting ................................................................................................................ 16 3.5.2 Barcode Reader .................................................................................................. 19 3.5.3 Wireless Communicator...................................................................................... 20
Autonomous Forklift Design .......................................................................... 24

3.6
3.6.1 Obstacle Detection ............................................................................................. 24 3.6.2 Navigation System .............................................................................................. 27 3.6.3 Steering System .................................................................................................. 29 3.6.4 Motor Selection .................................................................................................. 34 3.6.5 Microcontroller Selection ................................................................................... 36 3.6.6 Material Selection............................................................................................... 40

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Page | ii MECHANICAL DESIGN ................................................................ 42


4.1 Mechanical Structure ...................................................................................... 42

4.2 3D Design ...................................................................................................... 42

4.3 Structural Construction ................................................................................... 44

4.4
4.4.1 Design of Parts.................................................................................................... 44
Construction of Base ...................................................................................... 46

4.5 Assembly of Gearbox ..................................................................................... 48

4.6 Construction of Top Part ................................................................................ 49

4.7 Assembly of Tracks and Wheels ..................................................................... 50

4.8 Assembly of Forks ......................................................................................... 50

4.9 ELECTRONIC DESIGN.................................................................. 52


5.1 Forklift Electronic Design .............................................................................. 52

5.2
5.2.1 Ultrasound Sensor .............................................................................................. 52 5.2.2 Battery ............................................................................................................... 53 5.2.3 Line Following Sensor ......................................................................................... 56 5.2.4 Voltage Regulators ............................................................................................. 59 5.2.5 L293D Dual H-Bridge ........................................................................................... 63 5.2.6 Shift Register ...................................................................................................... 65 5.2.7 Transceiver ......................................................................................................... 71 5.2.8 Limit Switch ........................................................................................................ 73 5.2.9 Microcontroller .................................................................................................. 73
Central PC Electronic Design ......................................................................... 75

5.3
5.3.1 LCD ..................................................................................................................... 75 5.3.2 Nordic Transceiver .............................................................................................. 77 5.3.3 Push Buttons Switches ........................................................................................ 77 5.3.4 Microcontroller .................................................................................................. 78
SOFTWARE DESIGN ..................................................................... 81


6.1 Central PC Software Design ........................................................................... 81

6.2
6.2.1 Machine Vision ................................................................................................... 81 6.2.2 Arduino Nano ..................................................................................................... 82
Forklift Software Design ................................................................................ 84

6.3

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6.3.1 Setup Program .................................................................................................... 84 6.3.2 Main Loop Program ............................................................................................ 86
IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING .......................................... 105

CHAPTER 7 : Introduction .................................................................................................. 105

7.1 Problems and Solutions ................................................................................ 105

7.2 Central PC .................................................................................................... 106

7.3
7.3.1 Machine Vision ................................................................................................. 106 7.3.2 Arduino Nano ................................................................................................... 107
Forklift ......................................................................................................... 108

7.4 CONCLUSION AND FUTHER WORKS ...................................... 109

CHAPTER 8 : Conclusion ................................................................................................... 109

8.1 Further Works .............................................................................................. 110

8.2REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 111

APPENDIX A ....................................................................................................... 114

APPENDIX B ....................................................................................................... 116

APPENDIX C ....................................................................................................... 118

APPENDIX D ....................................................................................................... 119

APPENDIX E ........................................................................................................ 124

APPENDIX F ........................................................................................................ 129

APPENDIX G ....................................................................................................... 130

APPENDIX H ....................................................................................................... 168

APPENDIX I ......................................................................................................... 169

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Decision matrix for Sorting. .................................................................... 18

Table 3.2: Decision matrix for Wireless Communicator. .......................................... 23

Table 3.3: Decision matrix for Steering System ....................................................... 33

Table 3.4: Motor Torque Calculation ....................................................................... 34

Table 3.5: Components of Central PC ...................................................................... 36

Table 3.6: Components of AGV .............................................................................. 37

Table 3.7: Decision matrix for Microcontroller Selection ......................................... 40

Table 3.8: Decision matrix for Material Selection .................................................... 41

Table 4.1: Dimension of Parts .................................................................................. 45

Table 5.1: HC-SR04 Port Allocation ........................................................................ 52

Table 5.2: Voltage Regulators.................................................................................. 59

Table 5.3: L293D Features ...................................................................................... 64

Table 5.4: L293D Logic........................................................................................... 65

Table 5.5: Motor Driver IC Features ........................................................................ 66

Table 5.6: ShiftOut Numbers ................................................................................... 66

Table 5.7: Motor Driver IC Features ........................................................................ 67

Table 5.8: Motor Direction Relative to ShiftOut ...................................................... 70

Table 5.9: Nordic Transceiver Connections. ............................................................ 72

Table 5.10: Different Connections of Arduino ......................................................... 74

Table 5.11: Different Connections of Arduino Nano ................................................ 79

Table 6.1: Typical LDR Values ............................................................................... 86

Table 7.1: Problems and Solutions ......................................................................... 105

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Forklift Overview .................................................................................... 6

Figure 2.2: Barcode Sorting ....................................................................................... 7

Figure 2.3: Line Following AGV ............................................................................... 8

Figure 2.4: AGV Loading Trailer............................................................................... 9

Figure 2.5: Loading Pattern ....................................................................................... 9

Figure 3.1: Central PC Block Diagram..................................................................... 11

Figure 3.2: AGV Block Diagram ............................................................................. 12

Figure 3.3: PC Flowchart ......................................................................................... 13

Figure 3.4: AGV Flowchart ..................................................................................... 15

Figure 3.5: Typical Barcode..................................................................................... 17

Figure 3.6: Typical RFID Tag .................................................................................. 18

Figure 3.7: Handheld Barcode Scanner .................................................................... 19

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Page | v Figure 3.8: Wi-Fi Module ........................................................................................ 21

Figure 3.9: XBee Module ........................................................................................ 22

Figure 3.10: nRF24L01+ Wireless Module .............................................................. 23

Figure 3.11: AGV Measuring Distance .................................................................... 24

Figure 3.12: Infrared Proximity Sensor .................................................................... 25

Figure 3.13: Graph of Analog Voltage against Distance ........................................... 26

Figure 3.14: HC-SR04 Module ................................................................................ 26

Figure 3.15: Direction of Motion Relative Wheels ................................................... 30

Figure 3.16: Ackerman Steering .............................................................................. 31

Figure 3.17: Forklift with Mecanum Wheels ............................................................ 32

Figure 3.18: Direction of Motion Relative to Wheels ............................................... 32

Figure 3.19: Tamiya Tracks and Wheels .................................................................. 33

Figure 3.20: Forces Exerted on a Wheel................................................................... 34

Figure 3.21: Tamiya Double Gearbox ...................................................................... 35

Figure 3.22: Olimex Board ...................................................................................... 37

Figure 3.23: Arduino Duemilanove Board ............................................................... 39

Figure 4.1: 3D Design Side View ............................................................................ 43

Figure 4.2: 3D Design Back View ........................................................................... 43

Figure 4.3: 3D Design Front View ........................................................................... 44

Figure 4.4: HDPE Cutting Board ............................................................................. 45

Figure 4.5: Unglued Base of AGV ........................................................................... 46

Figure 4.6: Base with Hinge .................................................................................... 46

Figure 4.7: Battery and Sonar Sensor ....................................................................... 47

Figure 4.8: 3D Design Battery and Sonar Sensor ..................................................... 47

Figure 4.9: Unassembled Tamiya Double Gearbox .................................................. 48

Figure 4.10: Assembled Tamiya Gearbox ................................................................ 48

Figure 4.11: Top Side AGV ..................................................................................... 49

Figure 4.12: Top Side with Holes ............................................................................ 49

Figure 4.13: 3D Design AGV Top Side ................................................................... 50

Figure 4.14: Forks ................................................................................................... 51

Figure 5.1: HC-SR04 Module .................................................................................. 52

Figure 5.2: Schematic of HC-SR04 and Arduino ..................................................... 53

Figure 5.3: Dismantled Charging Dock .................................................................... 54

Figure 5.4: Battery Components Re-soldered ........................................................... 54

Figure 5.5: Battery with Two-way Switch ................................................................ 55

Figure 5.6: Schematic of Battery Circuit .................................................................. 55

Figure 5.7: LDR and Led Pairs ................................................................................ 57

Figure 5.8: Line Sensor on AGV.............................................................................. 57

Figure 5.9: Path of Light .......................................................................................... 58

Figure 5.10: Schematic of LDRs and Leds ............................................................... 58

Figure 5.11: AGV Different Levels.......................................................................... 59

Figure 5.12: Schematic of Voltage Regulator 1 ........................................................ 60

Figure 5.13: Schematic of Voltage Regulator 2 ........................................................ 61

Figure 5.14: LM317 Voltage Regulator ................................................................... 61

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Page | vi Figure 5.15: Schematic of LM317 ........................................................................... 62

Figure 5.16: L293D Pin Layout ............................................................................... 63

Figure 5.17: 74HC595 Pin Layout ........................................................................... 65

Figure 5.18: Schematic of 74HC595 and L293D (steering) ...................................... 68

Figure 5.19: Schematic of L293D and Steering Motors ............................................ 68

Figure 5.20: Schematic of 74HC595 and L293D (fork) ............................................ 69

Figure 5.21: Schematic of L293D and Fork Motor ................................................... 70

Figure 5.22: Schematic of Arduino and Shift Register ............................................. 71

Figure 5.23: Transceiver Module and Schematic ...................................................... 71

Figure 5.24: Schematic of Arduino and Transceiver................................................. 72

Figure 5.25: Schematic of Arduino and Limit Switches ........................................... 73

Figure 5.26: Different Connections of Arduino ........................................................ 75

Figure 5.27: LCD Module........................................................................................ 76

Figure 5.28: Schematic of Arduino and LCD ........................................................... 76

Figure 5.29: Schematic of Arduino and Transceiver................................................. 77

Figure 5.30: Schematic of Push Buttons and Arduino ............................................. 78

Figure 5.31: Different Connections of Arduino Nano ............................................... 80

Figure 6.1: Machine Vision Flowchart ..................................................................... 82

Figure 6.2: Arduino Nano Flowchart ....................................................................... 83

Figure 6.3: Setup Program Flowchart....................................................................... 85

Figure 6.4: Main Loop Flowchart ............................................................................ 88

Figure 6.5: Stop Flowchart ...................................................................................... 88

Figure 6.6: Radio Availability Flowchart ................................................................. 89

Figure 6.7: Radio Package Flowchart....................................................................... 90

Figure 6.8: Forward Flowchart................................................................................. 91

Figure 6.9: Obstacle Detection Flowchart ................................................................ 93

Figure 6.10: Forward Junction Flowchart ................................................................. 94

Figure 6.10: Lower Fork Flowchart ......................................................................... 95

Figure 6.12: Forward No Ultrasound Flowchart ....................................................... 96

Figure 6.13: Raise Fork Flowchart ........................................................................... 97

Figure 6.14: Turn Clockwise Flowchart ................................................................... 98

Figure 6.15: Target Flowchart.................................................................................. 99

Figure 6.16: Turn Anticlockwise Flowchart ........................................................... 100

Figure 6.17: Sonar Delivery Flowchart .................................................................. 101

Figure 6.18: Forward Delivery Flowchart .............................................................. 102

Figure 6.19: Reverse Flowchart ............................................................................. 103

Figure 6.20: Location Flowchart ............................................................................ 104

Figure 7.1: Trailer A Barcode ................................................................................ 106

Figure 7.2: Results of Roborealm........................................................................... 106

Figure 7.3: Nano Interfaced with LCD and Transceiver ......................................... 107

Figure 7.4: Autonomous Forklift............................................................................ 108

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AGV…………………………………………
..
…………Autonomous Guided Vehicle

GPS……………………………………………………...….Global Positioning System

IC……………………………………………………………………..Integrated Circuit

PC……………………………………………………………….….Personal Computer

LCD…………………………………
.
…………………………Liquid Crystal Display

LDR………………………………………
.
…………
.
……..Light Dependent Resistor

PWM………………………………………………………….Pulse Width Modulation

RF………………………………………………………………….…Radio Frequency

RFID…………………………………………………….…Radio Frequency Identifier

USB………………………………………………………………Universal Serial Bus

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisors; Mr. V. Oree and especially Mrs. R. Ramjug-Ballgobin for her constant help, guidance and assistance throughout the year without whom, I would have been unable to successfully complete my project. I would also like to thank Mr. Rioux, the robotics lab technician for his help and precious advice. Lastly, I would thank my friends that have made my four years at the university very memorable and thrilling.
I‟m furthermore very grateful to my mother, uncle and family who have always been
there for me as moral support and also lending me a helping hand when necessary.

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U
NIVERSITY OF
M
AURITIUS

Project/Dissertation Declaration Form

Name: ARJOO shaneesh Student ID: 0810877 Programme of Studies: BEng (Hons) Mechatronics Module Code/Name: MECH 4000(5) - Degree Project Title of Project/Dissertation: Design and implementation of an Autonomous Forklift Name of Supervisor(s): Mrs. R. Ramjug-Ballgobin & Mr. V. Oree
Declaration:
In accordance with the appropriate regulations, I hereby submit the above dissertation for examination and I declare that:

(i)

I have read and understood the sections on
Plagiarism and Fabrication and Falsification of Results

found in the University‟s “General Information to Students” Handbook (20…. /20….) and certify that the dissertation embodies the results of m
y own work. (ii)

I have adhered to the „Harvard system of referencing‟ or a system acceptable as per “The University of Mauritius Referencing Guide” for referencing, quotations and
citations in my dissertation. Each contribution to, and quotation in my dissertation from the work of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. (iii)

I have not allowed and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work. (iv)

I am aware that I may have to forfeit the certificate/diploma/degree in the event that plagiarism has been detected after the award. (v)

Notwithstanding the supervision provided to me by the University of Mauritius, I warrant that any alleged act(s) of plagiarism during my stay as registered student of the University of Mauritius is entirely my own responsibility and the University of Mauritius and/or its employees shall under no circumstances whatsoever be under any liability of any kind in respect of the aforesaid act(s) of plagiarism.
Signature: Date:

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ABSTRACT

Automation is the only means of effectively increasing the productivity of an industry. One of the key components of automation is autonomous guided vehicles. During the past ten years there have been major developments in this field but unfortunately the AGVs developed are only capable of specific tasks and work in restricted zones. The aim of the project was to devise a system capable of performing multi-tasks, that is; sorting of loads and loading of trailers in an environment shared with workers. The project dealt with the design and implementation of a whole system comprising of a central PC and an autonomous forklift in response to the above problem. The central PC sorts out loads and transmits the corresponding wireless data to the forklift. The latter follows a predefined path and loads the appropriate trailer whilst not affecting the safety of workers. The central PC makes use of Roborealm, the machine vision software to differentiate the trailers into which loading has to be done based on barcodes. The information obtained is then transferred to a microcontroller connected to the PC via USB. The latter communicates the data to the forklift via wireless communication for it to act accordingly. The electronic and mechanical parts of both the sub-systems were implemented. A great deal of work was involved in the conceptual and software design so that the system could perform effectively. Tests were carried out to show that the whole system operated exactly as desired.

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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 :

Autonomous Guided Vehicles
most commonly known as
AGVs
are increasingly popular in industrial environments. Since the creation of the first AGV in 1953 by the Berrett Electronics Company
[1]
, AGVs have highly evolved, from simple line following to hundreds of AGVs working in cooperation for the automation of whole industrial processes. The first AGV
was a simple tow truck that followed a wire “track” that was
embedded in the factory floor. Sensors under the truck detected the magnetic field, produced by current passing through the wire and the former guided the tow truck around the factory. With the development of Integrated Circuits (ICs) in the mid
1970‟s the popularity of AGV was greatly increased due to the fact that ICs have
better capabilities and flexibilities. A good example of the success of AGVs in 1973 is the Volvo car manufacturer in Sweden that replaced its typical conveyor assembly line with no less that 280 AGVs controlled by a computer. The definition of modern AGVs according to Mikell P. Groover is a follows:
“Automated guided vehicles (AGVs). AGVs are battery
-powered, automatically steered vehicles that follow defined pathways in the floor. The pathways are unobtrusive. AGVs are used to move unit loads between load and unload station in facility. Routing variations are possible, meaning that different loads move between different stations. They are usually interfaced with other systems to achieve the full
benefits of integrated automation.”
(Groover, 2001)
[2]
. Today modern AGVs are more sophisticated and present in practically every industry and warehouse. They have become a key component in flexible manufacturing systems, where they are typically used for the interconnection of work cells. AGVs nowadays are not only controlled by a central system but they are able to communicate between themselves for smoother operations. Twenty four hours non-stop operations has also been made possible with new battery charging solutions, where the battery is either swapped with a charged one or simply charged when the AGV is idle. The latter are not anymore confined to cells or human free zones, with advancement in safety features such as electronics laser bumpers. These bumpers are a foolproof 360
o
obstacle detection system that allows the AGVs to stop or slow down in case of an obstacle. This allows the latter to operate safely among workers or other vehicles as it is a non-contact type of obstacle detection
[3]
. Even if the initial cost of automating an industry with automated guided vehicles is very high, the return on investment is usually rapid. AGVs can be classified into categories based on the kind of load they are able to transport, the type of navigation system they use to move around or the tasks they perform. The latter is the most common type of classification. Automated Guided Vehicles are used in a wide range of tasks. They are extensively used in the handling of work-in-process goods in the manufacturing and automotive industries where they move materials form one process to another throughout the manufacturing process.

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Page | 2 The advantage of using AGVs for this type of handling is that the movements of goods between workstations are independent. Another example is the handling of finished goods where they are used in the automatic storage and retrieval of goods in food, beverage and pharmaceutical warehouses, where goods have to be classified by the warehousing software according to date of manufacture. AGV forklifts are most suitable for these applications as the goods are usually packed into unit loads found on pallets
[4]
. Nowadays they are also being used for more complex processes like automatic trailer loading where pallets are picked up from staging lanes and loaded into standard trailers using specific loading patterns for improved goods safety and trailer stability. Secondly in the healthcare industry where AGVs move linens, regulated medical waste, patient meals and surgical case carts. The main advantage is that as they move through the hospital they can automatically operate doors, elevators and even trash dumpers. And lastly also for outer space exploration, the Mars Rovers Spirit and Opportunity are two specially designed AGVs used for the exploration of Mars in an attempt to find traces of water. Originally designed to work for only 90 days on the Martian soil, they outperform every expectation by still being in activity since their landing in January 2004.
Advantages of AGVs
1.1
The advantages offered by AGVs which have contributed to their increased popularity are mainly:
[5]

1.

Improvement in safety with AGVs that move in a controlled and predictable manner with safety sensors for obstacle detection.
2.

Reduction of labor costs with fewer people to manoeuver forklifts and on the loading dock.
3.

Reduction in product damage with gentle and precise handling of loads.
4.

Reduction in trailer waiting times with safe, reliable, and timely loading of trailers.
5.

Improvement of material tracking with computer controlled vehicles which communicate with plant controls
6.

No plant modifications or bulky conveyors needed as it accommodates standard, over-the-road trailers and standard loading docks.
Problem Definition & Aims
1.2
Nowadays AGVs are being used in every aspect of the manufacturing process from the handling of material, sorting, storage and retrieval and trailer loading. But most AGVs today can perform only one of the above mentioned tasks. The rare AGVs that

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Page | 3 can accomplish multitasking are very expensive. So the main idea behind the project is to design and implement an overall system consisting of a central PC and an autonomous forklift that can sort out crates and also load the latter into trailers according to a specific loading pattern. The challenge of this project is to design an overall system that can operate safely in an existing human work place where other vehicles and workers on foot are present. To meet the challenge the following aims should be met:
1.

Sorting of loads for delivery in specific trailer.
2.

RF communication between central PC and forklift.
3.

Ability of autonomous forklift to navigate through a predefined path.
4.

Obstacle avoidance along path, through use of non-contact sensor for increased security.
5.

Loading of standard trailers in a specific pattern.
System Description
1.3
To be able to meet the above aims the proposed methodology was to develop a system in two parts. The first one would be sorting part, which would consist of a PC equipped with the appropriate hardware and software. The PC would normally be found in the loading area, with loads in close proximity so as to be able to perform its required task. Whereas the AGV would be in the parking zone found at a remote location. The PC would sort out the loads base on an algorithm and determine the trailers into which each would be loaded. For the sake of the project three different trailers mainly:
A
,
B
&
C
would be implemented. After having received confirmation about the availability of the forklift, the information of the trailer to be loaded would be communicated to the latter via wireless communication. The second part would be the implementation of the autonomous forklift itself. The forklift would initially be found at the parking zone, where it would inform the PC about its availability and wait for any load to be present at the loading area. After having received confirmation of the presence and the specific trailer to be loaded, the forklift would follow a predefined marked path towards the loading area. Along the path the latter would use its sensor as a non-contact form of obstacle detection. In case of any obstacle present for a prolonged time the PC would be informed of the situation by wireless.

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Page | 4 At the loading area, the forklift would lower its forks, load the pallet and continue motion along the path towards the trailers. While being on the path the AGV would continue to monitor any obstacle. On reaching the junction to the specific trailer, the forklift would do a 90
0
turn on itself and enter. This time the latter would use its sensor as a distance measuring device. The sensor would measure the distance between the forklift and the walls of the trailer or that between the forklift and any previous load already present in the trailer. The AGV would continue to move forward until the measured distance would be equal to that of the sum of the width of the pallet and the minimum clearance required between pallets or pallets and trailer wall. At this moment the forklift would lower its forks and reverse until it reaches the junction again. The AGV would then send an RF message to the PC, informing the latter that it has successfully delivered the load. Then after a 90
0
turn the former would continue along the path while detecting obstacles as mentioned above. On reaching the parking zone, the forklift would stop and inform the PC via RF about its availability for any further task. The AGV would continue to wait until a message about any new load is received. On reception of the message the above loop would be repeated until the trailers are full.
Thesis Structure
1.4

Chapter 2:
The literature review is a summarization of the different researches done in the field of autonomous guided vehicles. Discussions are also made about how the various features of AGVs already implemented can be applied to the project.
Chapter 3:
The conceptual design deals with the selection of the various components, microcontroller and material that would be used to implement the whole system. The characteristics and features of each component are discussed and selection is mostly done by the decision matrix method.
Chapter 4:
The mechanical design is a step-by-step process showing the building of the AGV based on 3D Designs and components selected from chapter 3.
Chapter 5:
The electronic design deals with the implementation and interfacing of the various ICs, sensors, motors and transceiver with the Arduino boards for both the forklift and central PC.
Chapter 6:
The software design gives an in depth explanation of the function of the different programs by use of flowcharts, that would be run on the AGV and PC.
Chapter 7:
The implementation and testing details the various problems faced after having completely built the system and what specific solution was found for each one.

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CHAPTER 2 :

LITTERATURE OVERVIEW
2.1

Introduction
This chapter enumerates the key points on current knowledge that have been published by scholars and researches in the specific field of autonomous guided forklifts and how these research work can be applied to the project.
2.2

Industrial Forklifts
A forklift is a powered truck that is used for lifting and transportation of materials. The latter developed since 1920s has become an indispensable piece of equipment in all manufacturing and warehousing companies. Forklifts are rated for specific weights and centre of gravity. One of the main advantages of forklifts is their increase manoeuvrability in making tight corners, which is due to rear wheel steering. Instability is the main problem concerning forklifts. The latter and a load are considered as a unit which has continuous varying centre of gravity for every movement of the load. Tip-over accidents is another concern that usually occurs when forklifts negotiate turns with raised loads, it's the combination of the centrifugal and gravitational forces that combine to cause these accidents
[6]
. Forklifts can be categorized according to the
Industrial Truck Association
, using this mode of classification the forklifts can be grouped into eight distinct classes. The most common type of forklifts is the counterbalanced ones. They use a heavy iron mass found at the rear that servers as a counterweight to compensate for the load. In the case of electric ones the large lead-acid battery is sufficient to counterweight the load.
2.3

Autonomous Navigation
The means of guidance for AGVs can be of many different types mainly:


Wired
which is the oldest means of guidance where a current carrying wire
“track” is embedded into the floor. The Automated guided vehicle equipp
ed with a magnetic sensor, senses the magnetic field generated by the current and the data obtained is used to navigate the robot along the path.

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

Laser navigation,
that

uses retro reflective tape mounted on poles or machines at strategic locations. The AGV is equipped with a laser mounted on a turret, the laser is transmitted and the time for the reflected signal to reach the AGV is calculated. By taking into account the time and angle of the transmitter the position of the latter is determined.


Inertial navigation,
which

uses small magnetic rods buried into the floor of the factory. By detecting the magnetic field and the spacing between the rods the position of the AGV is determined. The latter is also equipped with gyroscopes to detect slight changes in direction which are then corrected.


Guide tape navigation,
which makes use of magnetic or coloured tape. Using the appropriate sensor the AGV can be guided along the path. One of the main advantages of this type of navigation is that the track can be easily modified and the latter does not require to be energized. Guide tape was the type of navigation selected for the project of the Autonomous Forklift as it is simple and can be easily implemented.
Figure 2.1: Forklift Overview

(Source: Figure 6 in [Wikipedia Forklift Truck, 2011])

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2.4

Sorting
Sorting machines found in industries are usually large conveyor-based systems like the one developed by the SDI group in Holland
[7]
. The boxes found on the conveyor are sorted by reading the barcodes or RFID tags found on them and they are discharged along chutes into respective areas.
[8]

Figure 2.2: Barcode Sorting
(Source: Figure 4 in [Keyence, 2011]) They are later collected by AGVs and transported to the appropriate areas for storage or loaded into trucks. Using the same principle a PC equipped with a webcam would sort the packages by decoding the barcode found on them. After decoding the information extracted from the barcode will indicate into which trailer the package shall be loaded. This information will then be transmitted to the forklift via RF signal.
2.5

Guide Tape AGV
The E-Jet is an AGV developed by the S-Elektronik company found in Germany
[9]
. It uses black coloured tape to guide itself along the path. Although the guide tape method of navigation suffers from some drawbacks like, tape being easily damaged or covered with dirty. Its main advantage is that the course of the track can be easily modified and it is a cost efficient way compared to the other methods. The same method of navigation was selected for the project. The guide tape used was standard black adhesive electrical tape, which has a width of approximately 2.7 cm. The tape was glued on a white background for increased contrast. The sensors used for the detection of the line were light dependent resistors.

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[10]

Figure 2.3: Line Following AGV
(Source: Figure 1 in [S-Elektronik, 2011])
2.6

Trailer Loading AGV
Modern and more sophisticated AGVs recently developed by companies like Egemin and Daifuku Webb Company are now even capable of loading and unloading of over-the-road trailers
[11]
. The AGVs can move loads found on pallets in warehouse to trailer and vice versa. The main advantage is that the former can load and unload conventional trailers so the company does not need to buy specialized ones. One example of a trailer loading AGV is the Egemin Trailer Loader, shown in figure 2.4. The Egemin is capable of optimizing the space available in the trailer by leaving minimal clearances between pallets. And it is also able to load trailers using different loading patterns which are made possible by its guidance system that adapts itself to the length and width of each trailer. Being equipped with the latest security features the AGV is capable of working with both personnel and other manual forklifts without representing a risk for them
[12]
. The same concept of trailer loading was used for the project. But this time the sensor used was the ultrasonic sensor. The latter is used in two different ways, first to detect the distance between the wall of the container and the Autonomous forklift. Secondly it is used to detect obstacles such as personnel or other vehicles along the path. Upon detection the AGV would instantly come to a halt. As the type of microcontroller used for the project has low processing capabilities, only the single loading pattern would be implemented.

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Figure 2.4: AGV Loading Trailer
(Source: Figure 1 in [Egemin Trailer loading Brochure, 2011])
Figure 2.5: Loading Pattern
(Source: Figure 10 & 11 in [Egemin Trailer loading Brochure, 2011])

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CONCEPTUAL DESIGN CHAPTER 3 :
Introduction
3.1
The conceptual design of the complete system to be implemented will be discussed in this chapter. It will encompass all the various functions that should be performed by the system, and the most appropriate parts will be chosen using the decision matrix method. It should be kept in mind that the system should meet certain specific requirements that will greatly affect the choice and design of the components of the forklift. The requirements are as follows:
1.

The obstacle sensor on the AGV should not be blocked by the forks of the latter. The sensor should be relatively accurate so as to be able to effectively measure distance between AGV and any obstacle.
2.

The central PC should not only decode loads present in the loading area. But it should be able to differentiate whenever a load is present or absent.
3.

Two-way communication should be possible between PC and AGV. So that the latter could inform the PC about its availability, tasks being performed and any obstacle present on path. The PC on its part should be able to inform the forklift about the presence of loads and the specific trailer into which loading should be done.

System Block Diagram
3.2
The system block diagrams for both the PC and the autonomous forklift were realized after the determination of the essential components required. The block diagrams realized provide a clear view of the overall system.
3.2.1

Central PC
The Figure 3.1 shows the various inputs and outputs that will be present in the decoding section of the project.

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BARCODE

MACHINE VISION
Figure 3.1: Central PC Block Diagram
3.2.2

Autonomous Forklift
All the different inputs, outputs and ICs related to the conception of the AGV are detail in the following block diagram. WEBCAM MICROCHIP PUSH BUTTON A PUSH BUTTON B PUSH BUTTON C LCD DISPLAY WIRELESS TRANSMITTER

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Figure 3.2: AGV Block Diagram
MICROCHIP ULTRASOUND SENSOR LINE FOLLOWER SENSOR TRANSCEIVER MODULE SHIFT REGISTER MOTOR DRIVER IC MOTOR DRIVER IC BUZZER LIMIT SWITCH DC MOTORS FORK MOTORS

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System Flow Chart
3.3
The system flow charts represent the basic steps through which the PC and Forklift programs must undergo respectively so as to be able to complete their respective functions.
N

Y N

Y
Figure 3.3: PC Flowchart

START IS FORKLIFT AVAILABLE? SET TRANSCEIVER TO RECEIVER DELAY DECODE SEND INFORMATION TO MICROCONTROLLER SET TRANSCEIVER TO TRANSMITTER
TRANSMIT INFORMATION TO FORKLIFT

DELAY IS PACKAGE AVAILABLE?

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N Y N Y N
START SET TRANSCEIVER TO TRANSMITTER TRANSMIT AVAILABILTY SET TRANSCEIVER TO RECEIVER IS PACKAGE AVAILABLE? DELAY SET DESTINATION LINE FOLLOWER IS LOADING AREA REACHED? LOAD PALLETE LINE FOLLOWER IS DESTINATION REACHED?

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Y N Y Y
Figure 3.4: AGV Flowchart
Conceptual Design
3.4
The selection process of the different parts forming the whole automated system will be described in the following section. The selection will be based on the advantages

TURN LEFT ENTER TRAILER LINE FOLLOWER MIN.CLEARANCEREACHED? UNLOAD PALLETE EXIT TRAILER TURN RIGHT LINE FOLLOWER IS PARKING AREA REACHED? STOP

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Page | 16 offered by each component but mainly on their ability to be easily integrated in the design.
Central PC Design
3.5
When considering the design of the central PC part it should be taken into account that the latter will perform two main functions mainly: 1.

The differentiation between the presence and absence of loads, and their sorting. 2.

The establishment of two-way communication between PC and AGV.
3.5.1

Sorting
The different loads present at the loading area would have to be sorted in order to be successfully loaded in to the specific trailer. To be able to accomplish this task the sorting system would have to meet certain requirements:


Accurate:
The system must be able to differentiate between the loads without making errors.


Fast and reliable:
The information found on the pallet should be obtainable instantly to be transmitted to the AGV.


Reconfigurable:
Reprogramming of the system should be possible to include more trailers and loads.


Low cost:
The method of sorting should be relatively cheap as it would be included to thousands of pallets.


Track of inventory:
A record of the loads leaving the warehouse should be easy to keep.

The different systems of sorting available are discussed below and based on the decision matrix method the best choice was made.
3.5.1.1

Barcode
Barcoding is a popular type of sorting used in industries to differentiate loads and keep track of inventory
[13]
. In our system, barcodes can be easily glued to pallets and using an appropriate barcode reader the loads can be easily sorted. The information obtained by the reader would be decoded and transmitted to the AGV.

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

Advantages of barcoding : 1.

Inexpensive to design and print. 2.

Fast and reliable. 3.

Accurate. 4.

Improves inventory control.


Disadvantages of barcoding: 1.

Label prone to damages. 2.

Reader requires direct line of sight to decrypt barcode.
Figure 3.5: Typical Barcode
3.5.1.2

RFID Tags
Radio frequency identifiers also known as RFID are being developed as a new form of sorting. This kind of method uses radio waves to establish communication between the tags and the reader
[14]
. In context with the project the tags could be incorporated to the pallets and decoded using appropriate equipment.


Advantages of RFID: 1.

Modification of data present on tag. 2.

Higher data holding capacity. 3.

Accurate. 4.

Fast and reliable. 5.

Improves inventory control. 6.

Reader can read multiple tags and does not require direct line of sight.


Disadvantages of RFID: 1.

Very high cost of tags and appropriate reader. 2.

Radio waves may pose problem with certain materials. 3.

Tags can fail.

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[15]

Figure 3.6: Typical RFID Tag
(Source: Figure 2 in [Small Business Trends, 2012])
3.5.1.3

Selection for Sorting
After having performed a thorough search on the above types of sorting Pugh‟s
method was used as a means of comparison.
Table 3.1: Decision matrix for Sorting.
Barcodes RFID Accuracy + + + + Reliability + + + Modifications + + + Reading Speed + + + Price + + - - RESULTS Pluses 8 7 Minuses 0 2
Barcoding was found to be the most appropriate system to be used for the sorting process, as it meets all the requirements and has a very low cost of implementation.

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3.5.2

Barcode Reader
After the selection of barcoding as the method of sorting, a question about the type of reader to be used arises. There are two types of barcode reading devices available, a typical barcode reader or machine vision software.
3.5.2.1

Typical Barcode Reader
The laser barcode readers are the most common variety used. They provide fast and accurate information which can be easily transferred to a PC for processing. If implemented for the project the reader would be connected to the PC most likely via USB. The information obtained would then be shifted to the microcontroller, for the latter to take the required actions.


Advantages of barcode reader: 1.

Fast and accurate. 2.

Easily interfaced with PC.


Disadvantages of barcode reader: 1.

Have to be used in conjunction with other sensor to detect presence of load. 2.

Barcode has to be in motion for reader to pick up information.
[16]

Figure 3.7: Handheld Barcode Scanner
(Source: Figure 1 in [Buzzle, 2012])

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3.5.2.2

Machine Vision
A PC equipped with a camera and the appropriate software can easily perform the decoding of barcodes. The software Roborealm would most likely be selected for the task, as the latter can perform the decrypting process and identify the presence of loads without the need of external sensors
[17]
. The decrypted information would then be transmitted to the microcontroller.


Advantages of Roborealm: 1.

Very fast decoding. 2.

Can support 9 types of barcodes. 3.

Does not require pallets to be in motion to decrypt the information. 4.

Can be easily interfaced with microcontrollers. 5.

Does not require additional sensors to detect presence of loads.


Disadvantages of Roborealm: 1.

Prone to errors in low light conditions. 2.

A license has to be purchased yearly for its use.
3.5.2.3

Selection for Barcode Reader
For the determination of the most appropriate piece of equipment, the use of the decision matrix was not required. As one of the major drawbacks of a typical barcode reader is that the pallet should be in motion, most likely on a conveyor. Whereas in the context of this project the load would simply be place on the loading area, therefore the most suitable method would be the machine vision.
3.5.3

Wireless Communicator
Two-way wireless communication should be possible between PC and AGV. The PC should be able to transmit information about the trailer to be loaded whenever a pallet is present. In the same manner the forklift should be able to send data every time it is available and to inform the PC about any obstacle present on the path. The most appropriate means of wireless communication are discussed below.

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3.5.3.1

Wi-Fi Module
Wi-Fi is a widely used communication protocol in industries as it can be easily implemented. The Wi-Fi modules such as the GainSpan WiFi Breakout could be interfaced with the AGV and as most computers are now equipped with Wi-Fi, there would be no need to purchase further equipment
[18]
.


Advantages of GainSpan WiFi: 1.

Ability to integrate with existing infrastructure. 2.

Very long range (300 m). 3.

Low battery consumption.


Disadvantages of GainSpan WiFi: 1.

Expensive. 2.

Lack of libraries present for implementation.
Figure 3.8: Wi-Fi Module
(Source: Figure 1 in [Sparkfun, 2011])
3.5.3.2

ZigBee
ZigBee is a type of wireless protocol designed to transmit data through RF signals especially in harsh manufacturing environments. The XBee is a module based on the ZigBee protocol using a frequency of 2.4GHz to transmit data
[19]
. For the project two XBee modules could be used, one would be connected to the PC and the other one to the forklift.


Advantages of XBee: 1.

Supports multiple network topologies. 2.

Low battery consumption.

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Low latency. 4.

128-bit encryption. 5.

Easy implementation.


Disadvantages of XBee: 1.

Medium range (100 m). 2.

Modules relatively expensive.
[20]

Figure 3.9: XBee Module
(Source: Figure 1 in [Sparkfun, 2011])
3.5.3.3

Nordic Transceiver
The nRF24L01+ wireless module developed by the Nordic Semiconductors company is an ultra-low power RF transceiver
[21]
. As the XBee modules, it uses a frequency of 2.4 GHz to send information. Two of these modules could be included in the system so as to establish communication between the PC and AGV.


Advantages of Nordic transceiver: 1.

Ultra-low power. 2.

Fast transmission of data. 3.

Supports multiple topologies. 4.

Low cost.


Disadvantages of Nordic transceiver: 1.

Low range. 2.

Lack of libraries present for implementation.

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[22]

Figure 3.10: nRF24L01+ Wireless Module
(Source: Figure 1 in [Iteadstudio, 2012])
3.5.3.4

Selection for Wireless Communicator
A decision matrix was built so as to compare the different types of communication available and select the most appropriate one for the project.
Table 3.2: Decision matrix for Wireless Communicator.
Wi-Fi XBee Nordic Range ++ + - Power Consumption - - + ++ Ease of Implementation + ++ + Support of Networks + ++ ++ Cost - - - ++ RESULTS Pluses 4 6 7 Minuses 4 1 1
Based on the above table the nRF24L01+ Nordic wireless module was selected as the most suitable transceiver for the system.

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Autonomous Forklift Design
3.6
Before starting the selection of components for the AGV, it should be kept in mind that there are certain key functions that the forklift should be able to perform mainly: 1.

Establishing two-way communication, so as to be able to inform the central PC about its current status. 2.

Following a predefined path for delivery of pallet in appropriate trailer. 3.

Accurate detection of obstacle along path. 4.

Precise determination of distance for unloading of pallet in trailers. For wireless communication the Nordic transceiver selected was used.
3.6.1

Obstacle Detection
For increased security the forklift would have to be equipped with a non-contact form of obstacle detection sensor while moving on the predefined path. The sensor should also be able to measure distances accurately so that the AGV can precisely deliver the load in the trailer. The latter would measure the distance between the forklift and the walls of the trailer or that between the forklift and any previous load already present in the trailer as shown in the Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11: AGV Measuring Distance
The AGV would continue to move forward, until the measured distance would be equal to that of the sum of the width of the pallet and the minimum clearance required between pallets or pallet and trailer wall.

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Page | 25 The two means of obstacle detection considered were the infrared proximity sensor and ultrasound sensor.
3.6.1.1

Infrared Proximity Sensor
The sensor works on the simple principle that an IR light is emitted and on hitting an object the latter is reflected back to the receiver. Depending on the angle between the emitted and reflected light an analog voltage is output.
[23]
Figure 3.12: Infrared Proximity Sensor
(Source: Figure 2 in [Acroname, 2011]) (Source: Figure 1 in [Sparkfun, 2012])
[24]



Advantages of infrared sensor: 1.

Cheap. 2.

Can be easily interfaced.


Disadvantages of infrared sensor: 1.

Low range from 10 to 80 cm only. 2.

Low accuracy. 3.

The relationship between analog voltage and distance is non-linear. 4.

If the distance to the obstacle is less than 10 cm, the output voltage from the sensor corresponds to that of a longer range. (refer to Figure 3.13)

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Figure 3.13: Graph of Analog Voltage against Distance
(Source: Figure 5 in [Acroname, 2011])
3.6.1.2

Ultrasound Sensor
The ultrasound sensor considered was the HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Range Finder. The principle of operation of the sensor is that, a sound wave is generated by applying logic 1 to the Trigger pin on the latter for a few milliseconds. On hitting the obstacle the wave is reflected back to the sensor. When the reflected wave is detected, the Echo pin generates a logic output of 1. To measure the distance between the obstacle, the time in-between the Trigger and Echo is calculated. Then using the relationship between speed, time and distance, the value of distance is calculated.
[25]

Figure 3.14: HC-SR04 Module
(Source: Figure 1 in [Jaktek, n.d])

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

Advantages of HC-SR04: 1.

Cheap. 2.

Can be easily interfaced. 3.

Very large range from 2 to 400 cm. 4.

Extremely accurate. (0.3 cm)


Disadvantage of HC-SR04: 1.

Effective angle of detection is limited to 15
o

3.6.1.3

Selection of Obstacle Detector
The HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Range Finder was the obvious choice to be made due to the numerous advantages it offers but also due to the fact that the Infrared Proximity Sensor cannot be used for ranges below 10 cm. Measuring distances below 10 cm will be imperative, especially for the trailer loading function.
3.6.2

Navigation System
In this section the numerous types of navigation available for robots will be discussed and a choice about the most appropriate form will be made. The requirements that should be met by the navigation system are as follows:


It should be relatively cheap.


The track should be easily modifiable to accommodate new trailers.


The AGV should be able to follow the predefined path accurately. The systems that meet the above requirements are the line following and autonomous navigation by use of GPS.
3.6.2.1

Line Following
The easiest way to implement line following for the project would be to use black electrical tape. The black tape would be used to define the path that the forklift would need to follow. The specific places where the AGV would need to load, unload or perform turns would be defined by junctions. To detect the junctions and the line the

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Page | 28 forklift would either be equipped with LDR and led pairs or IR emitter and receiver pairs.


Advantages of line following: 1.

Very cheap. 2.

Path can be easily altered. 3.



Disadvantage of line following: 1.

Tape can be easily damaged or covered with dirt.
3.6.2.2

Autonomous Navigation
The global positioning system (GPS) is a satellite based system that provides accurate information about the location of any device. This information provided is in the form of longitudinal and latitudinal values. The AGV would be given specific points through which it should navigate. The latter should be equipped with a GPS and compass module to be able to operate properly.
[26]



Advantages of GPS navigation: 1.

Ability to work in any condition. 2.

Path can be easily altered. 3.



Disadvantages of GPS navigation: 1.

Costs of modules are high. 2.

Low precision with a maximum deviation of 5m from targeted location.
3.6.2.3

Selection of Navigation System
The selected form of navigation was the line following method; the choice was made clear by the low precision of the GPS modules considered. As in an industry a difference of 5m from the designated position would be troublesome.

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3.6.3

Steering System
The different types of steering available for robots will be considered in this segment. But before starting it should be kept in mind that the forklift would have to follow certain requirements based on the project design:


Ability to rotate on itself 360
o
.


Relatively stable.


Precision turning.


Easily programmable. The different types of steering are argued below and a choice for the best alternative was made.
3.6.3.1

Differential Steering
Differential steering is the most common form of steering used for robots. The term differential comes from the fact that the direction of motion of the robot is affected by the speed and direction of rotation of each wheel. Two independent wheels driven by motors would be placed on each side of the forklift. Alterations in the speed of rotation of the motors by PWM and direction of rotation, would affect the direction of motion.
[27]



Advantages of differential steering: 1.

Ability to spin on its own axis by reversing one wheel relative to the other. 2.

Easily programmable.


Disadvantage of differential steering: 1.

While making turns the speed of rotation of each wheel should be precisely controlled.

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Figure 3.15: Direction of Motion Relative Wheels
(Source: Figure 2 in [Robotoid, n.d])
3.6.3.2

Ackerman Steering
The Ackerman steering is a type of steering initially developed for horse drawn carriages that was later adapted to cars. It avoids tires to slip sideways while doing a curved path as all the wheels have their axes set on the radius of a circle with a common center. The rear wheels would be controlled by a single motor, which would control the forward and backward motion. While the direction of the front ones, would be controlled by a servo or stepper motor.
[28]



Advantages of Ackerman steering: 1.

Easily programmable. 2.

Most appropriate for high speed robots.

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

Disadvantages of Ackerman steering: 1.

Unable to spin on its own axis. 2.

Increases wear on wheels. 3.

Difficult to implement.
Figure 3.16: Ackerman Steering
(Source: Figure 11 in [Beam-wiki, 2012])
3.6.3.3

Omnidirectional Steering
This type of steering makes use of the mecanum wheels. Each of the wheels is connected to a separate motor and depending on the speed and direction of rotation of each motor the forklift would move in any direction. This type of steering has already been implemented on certain real size forklifts as shown in Figure 3.17.
[29]



Advantages of omnidirectional steering: 1.

Exceptional maneuverability. 2.

Low torque of motors is needed and minimum friction is generated while performing a 360
o
rotation.


Disadvantages of omnidirectional steering: 1.

High cost. 2.

Difficult to program.

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Figure 3.17: Forklift with Mecanum Wheels
(Source: Figure 2 in [Gizmodir, 2012])
[30]
Figure 3.18: Direction of Motion Relative to Wheels
(Source: Figure 3 in [Humanoid-robotics, 2012])
[31]

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3.6.3.4

Selection of Steering System
Table 3.3: Decision matrix for Steering System
Differential Ackerman Omnidirectional Maneuverability + - ++ Stability + ++ ++ Ease of Programing ++ + + In-place Rotation + - - ++ Cost ++ + - RESULTS Pluses 7 4 7 Minuses 0 3 1
The differential steering was the perfect choice for the AGV. Normally casters are used to balance the system but due to their high price and the fact that they have to be used in pairs for a stable structure. A more adapted system of tracks and wheels from Tamiya was preferred, as show in Figure 3.19. One of the main advantages of the latter is that it can be easily adapted to any kind of robot.
Figure 3.19: Tamiya Tracks and Wheels
(Source: Figure 1 in [Superdroidrobots, 2012])
[32]

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3.6.4

Motor Selection
After the selection of the steering system, the required torque that should be developed by each motor was calculated based on the following features.


The mass of the forklift together with the load was evaluated to be 2 Kg.


The radius of the driving wheel is equal to 1.5cm.


The AGV would normally operate on a flat surface but for the project an inclination of 5
o
was considered.


The efficiency of motors was approximated to 65%.


A travelling speed of 5cm/s was chosen for the forklift.
[33]

Figure 3.20: Forces Exerted on a Wheel
(Source: Figure 4 in [Robotshop, 2008]) For calculations refer to Appendix B. The results obtained were as follows:
Table 3.4: Motor Torque Calculation
Mass of Forklift 2 Kg Radius of Wheel 0.015 m Travelling Speed 5 cm/s Rotations of Wheel 31.83 rpm Acceleration 0.1 m/s Inclination 5
o
Efficiency of Motors 65%

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Torque Required by AGV 0.44 Nm Torque Required per Wheel 0.22 Nm Torque Required per Wheel 2243.37 gf.cm
The Tamiya Double Gearbox was preferred against geared motors due to the numerous advantages it offers.


Advantages: 1.

Can be built in numerous configurations depending on Torque and speed requirements. 2.

It consists of two dc motors whose speed and direction of rotation can be altered independently. 3.

Very low price compared to geared motors.
According to Tamiya‟s specification sheet the gear ratio selected for the AGV was
344.2:1. This type of configuration offers a
Torque of 2276 gf.cm
and a
Rotational speed of 38 rpm.
This is more than sufficient to drive the forklift.
Figure 3.21: Tamiya Double Gearbox
(Source: Figure 1 in [Tamiya, 2008])
[34]

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3.6.5

Microcontroller Selection
After the selection of all the components making up the AGV and the central PC a clear idea about the different components and number of inputs and outputs needed was made. Both the central PC and the Autonomous Forklift would be using a microcontroller, which should be able to perform certain tasks.
3.6.5.1

Central PC Microcontroller
They requirements that should be met by the microcontroller connected to the PC are as follows: 1.

It should be an interface between the machine vision software and the transceiver. 2.

It should be able to present data on a LCD for the user. (HD44780) 3.

It should have the ability to be re-actualized by the user. (push buttons) To act as interface the controller should either be connected via USB or serial port. An analysis of the different types of inputs needed was made and is shown in the Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Components of Central PC
Components Num. of ports Type
Nordic Transceiver 5 Digital Output LCD 6 Digital Output Push Buttons 3 Analog Input A total of
11 digital outputs
and
3 analog inputs
were required.
3.6.5.2

Autonomous Forklift Microcontroller
The number of inputs and outputs required for each of the selected components composing the forklift are detailed in the Table 3.6.

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Table 3.6: Components of AGV
Components Num. of ports Type
Nordic Transceiver 5 Digital Output Motor Driver (×2) 12 Digital Output Ultrasound Sensor 2 Digital Input & Output LDR (×4) 4 Analog Input Limit Switch (×2) 2 Analog Input Buzzer 1 Analog Input A total of
18 digital outputs, 6 analog inputs
and
1 digital input
would be required for the AGV. Out of the 18 digital outputs, 2 need to be capable of pulse width modulation (PWM). Two different types of microcontrollers were considered and based on their respective advantages a decision was made.
3.6.5.3

PIC 16F877A
The popular microcontroller PIC16F877A together with the development board from Olimex was investigated as an option.
Figure 3.22: Olimex Board
(Source: Figure 1 in [Sparkfun.com, 2011])

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Page | 38 The properties of the PIC16F877A chip are as follows:


14KB Flash program memory.


256 byte EEPROM Data.


368 bytes RAM.


8 Analog inputs.


35 Digital Inputs or Outputs.


2 PWM ports out of the 35.


Advantages of PIC16F877A
:
1.

Widely used.

2.

Huge number of ports available.



Disadvantages of PIC16F877A
:
1.

Limited library available for implementation with components.

2.

Limited number of PWM outputs.

3.

No online reference available.

4.

Can only be programmed through serial RS 232 port. (Most modern PCs are equipped with only USB).

5.

Cost of PIC and development board relatively high.

6.

Difficult to program.

3.6.5.4

ATmega 328
The second microcontroller that was considered was the ATmega 328 that comes with the Arduino Duemilanove Board. The Duemilanove is a modern development board that is becoming increasing popular among hobbyist. The properties of the ATmega 328 chip are as follows:


32KB Flash program memory.


1KB EEPROM Data.


2KB RAM.


6 Analog Inputs.


14 Digital Inputs or Outputs.


6 PWM ports out of the 14.

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Figure 3.23: Arduino Duemilanove Board
(Source: Figure 1 in [Arduino.cc, 2009])


Advantages of Arduino Duemilanove
:
1.

Huge library available online for implementation with various components.

2.

Can be easily programmed via USB.

3.

Relatively cheap.

4.

Huge number of PWM ports.

5.

Can be easily interfaced with software.



Disadvantage of Arduino Duemilanove
:
1.

Limited number of digital input or output ports.

3.6.5.5

Selection of Microcontroller
To select the most appropriate microcontroller for the project a decision matrix was used.

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Table 3.7: Decision matrix for Microcontroller Selection
PIC 16F877A ATmega 328 Ease of Programing - - ++ Num. of Ports ++ - - Interface with components - - ++ Connectivity - ++ Cost + ++ RESULTS Pluses 3 8 Minuses 5 2
The Arduino Duemilanove was the microcontroller carefully chosen even if the latter has only 14 digital input or output ports and the required number for the project was 18. To increase the number of ports a shift register was used.
3.6.6

Material Selection
Different materials have been considered for the construction of the robot. The main requirements of the material are: 1.

Durability. 2.

Good machinability. 3.

Corrosion resistant. 4.

Light weight. 5.

Good toughness.

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Table 3.8: Decision matrix for Material Selection
Stainless Steel Plywood High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Durability ++ + ++ Machinability - - + ++ Light weight + ++ ++ Toughness ++ - - ++ Cost - - ++ + RESULTS Pluses 5 6 9 Minuses 4 2 0
It was clear from the decision matrix that HDPE is the most appropriate material. HDPE can be easily found in kitchen cutting boards and it possesses all the required characteristics.

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MECHANICAL DESIGN CHAPTER 4 :

Introduction
4.1
After the selection of the components and the material from which the AGV would be build, this chapter will address the building of the different sub-systems that would compose the forklift.
Mechanical Structure
4.2
Before starting the construction of the structure, there were certain requirements that should be met for the good functioning of the whole system.


Requirements: 1.

The ultrasound sensor should not be blocked by the forks. 2.

The height of the line following sensor should be adjustable. 3.

The width of the forklift should not exceed 7 cm as this corresponds to the width of the Tamiya Double Gearbox.
3D Design
4.3
Based on the above considerations a 3D design of the AGV was made using Google SketchUp to get a better understanding of the structure.

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Figure 4.1: 3D Design Side View Figure 4.2: 3D Design Back View

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Figure 4.3: 3D Design Front View
Structural Construction
4.4
The following section encompasses the building process of the forklift based on the 3D designs.
4.4.1

Design of Parts
The different parts that would form part of the structure of the AGV were drawn on a piece of HDPE of thickness 0.4 cm.

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