AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ZO PEOPLE OF BANGLADESH, BURMA AND INDIACONTENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTSOld And New Spellings of Tribal and Place Names1.0 INTRODUCTION
(quotations from various international publications) 1.1. CHINS or KUKIS 1.2. KUKI 1.3. CHINS 1.4. MIZOS 1.5. Kuki-Chin-Völker [Kuki-Chin-Peoples]1.6. The Chins1.7. The Term “Chin“ is imprecise.1.8. Chins1.9. The Chins
2.0. GEOGRAPHY
2.1 Introduction2.2 Climate
2.3. VEGETATION
2.3.1. Chin Hills-Arakan Yoma Montane Forests (IM0109)2.3.2. Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin Rain Forests (IM0131)2.3.3. Naga-Manipuri-Chin Hills Moist Forests (34)2.3.4. Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests (IM0303)
3. ADMINISTRATION4.0. ECONOMY
4.1. Agriculture4.2. Forest Products4.3. Mines and Minerals4.4. Handlooms and Handicraft4.5. Tourism4.6. Energy Sector
5.0. INFRASTRUCTURE
5.1. Roads5.2. Air Services5.3. Railways5.4. Water Ways
6. EDUCATION & HEALTHi
ad
ad
ad
12.2.1. Hakas and Siyins 12.2.2. Tashons
12.3 ROOTS OF CHIN/ZO PEOPLE 12.4
The Lands, Tribes and Population
12.5
Main Clans and Sub-clans
12.6
. Zo Names
12.7
Civil Life and Civic Works
12.8
The Roles and Rights of Women
12.9
Village Planning
12.10. THREE SCHOLARS‘ OPINIONS ON THE CHIN/ZO PEOPLE
12.10.1. CHIN AND LUSHAI(MIZO) 12.10.2. TOWARDS ZO UNIFICATION12.10.3. THE TERM “ZO“
12.11. THE CHIN-KUKI-MIZO: A LOST TRIBE OF ISRAEL?
12.11.1. Amishav Organization: Lost Tribe Returns to Israel12.11.2. Lost Tribe of Israel 12.11.3. Menashe in Myanmar12.11.4. ISRAEL Lost and Found?12.11.5. From India to Zion12.11.6. More Bnei Menashe Arrive in Israel12.11.7. Israeli 'Lost Tribes' Living in W. Bank12.11.8. DNA tests prove that Mizo people are descendants of a lost Israeli tribe 12.11.9. Israel‘s Chief Rabinnate Recognizes Mizos As An Israeli Lost Tribe12.11.10. Tracking the Genetic Imprints of Lost Jewish Tribes among the Gene Pool of Kuki-Chin-Mizo Population of India
13.0 LANGUAGE14.0 RELIGION
14.1.
Ancient Religious Beliefs of the Chin/Zo
14.2. THE RELIGION OF LAIPIAN PAU CIN HAU
14.2.1. The Laipian Hierarchy
14.3.. CHRISTIANIZATION IN CHINLAND(EAST ZORAM)
14.3.1. Introduction 14.3.2. Adoption of the Name “Zomi Baptist Convention” 14.3.3. American Baptist Missionaries in Chinland(East) 14.3.4. “Chins For Christ in One Century“(CCOC)14.3.5. Brief History of the Catholic Church in the Chin Hills
14.3.6 Evangelization of Southern Chin State 14.3.7. Evangelization of Northern Chin State 14.3.8. Zones and Parishesiv
ad
14.3.9. French Priest-Missionaries14.3.10. KHUMI-CHIN ANGLICANS
14.4. INTRODUCTION OF BUDDHISM INTO NORTHERN CHINLAND(EAST ZORAM)15.0 CULTURE
15.1. Musics and Dances(Colonialists‘ View) 15.2. Summary of the Chin/Zo Culture 15.3. Mithan/Mythun(Bos gaurus frontalis) - the National Animal 15.4. Hornbill(Buceros bicomis) - the National Bird 15.5. Traditional Songs15.6. Folk Dances 15.7. Head-hunting and Special ceremonies
16.0 PRESENT PLIGHT OF THE CHIN/ZO PEOPLE IN BURMA
16.1. TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING PROGRAMME 16.2. THE MARCH 31, 2004 ANNOUNCEMENT OF PROJECT MAJE16.3. PROFESSOR DR. SALAI TUN THAN
REFERENCESGLOSSARY
MAP 1Migratory Routes of the Chins and Territories In Which They Are Found TodayMAP 2Kuki-Chin Tribal and Linguistic Distribution(1957)MAP 3Geographical Centers of [Chin] Language GroupsMAP 4Japanese Thrust on Imphal-Kohima
PHOTOS OF SOME HISTORICAL SITES: PHOTOS 1-8
PHOTO 1SIALLUM FORTPHOTO2 + 3Two of the most important Battle Fields of the Chin-Anglo War near Fort WhitePHOTO 4+5HAKA, Capital of Chinland(East Zoram)PHOTO 6FALAMPHOTO 7TEDIMPHOTO 8Vangteh VillagePHOTOS 9+10 -Scenes from the Zo Daily Life in East Zoram(Source of Photos - 2 to 10. Paupi, Burma/Photos were taken in 2003)PHOTOS 11+12 Two tatooed women from Southern ChinlandPHOTO 13Some Chin/Zo Women in Their Traditional Costumes(East Zoram)v
ad
LIST OF TABLES
Extra Sheet IKEY TO SYMBOLS( of Genealogy)Extra Sheet IIGENEALOGICAL INDEXTABLE 1Roots of Chin/Zo TribesTABLE 2Genealogical Tree of the Zo RaceTABLE 3Genealogical Tree of Mizo TribeTABLE 4Genealogy of Paihte or Zomi and Lusei TABLE 5Hualngo & Lusei ClansTABLE 6Thado-Kuki Clans TABLE 7/AGenealogical Tree of Mizo ChiefsTABLE 7/BGenealogical Tree of the Sailo Sub-ClanTABLE 8/AGenealogical Tree of Lua Tawng Sub-clanTABLE 8/B - do -TABLE 8/CGenealogical Tree of Thuam Lam Sub-clanTABLE 9/AList of Zo Tribes and Sub-tribes(Clans)TABLE 9/BSuantak Clan among the Faihriam Tribe(India)TABLE 9/CSuantak Clan among the Kuki & Kam Hau Tribes(Burma and India)TABLE 9/D-1Suantak Clan among the Paihte Tribe(India)TABLE 9/D-2- do -TABLE 9/ESuantak Clan among the SizangsTABLE 9/F-1Suantak Clan among the Tedims(Burma)TABLE 9/F-2 - do - TABLE 9/GSuantak Clan among the Vaipheis(Burma and India)TABLE 10/APercentage of Lexicostatistics SimilarityTABLE 10/BMetrix of Lexicostatistic Percentages in 21 Chin LanguagesTABLE 10/CChin Languages in the Chin State of Burma(Myanmar)TABLE 11Genealogical Tree of One of the Haka Chiefs
DIAGRAMS 1 & 2
HOW THE NORTHERN CHIN/ZO GET THEIR NAMES
APPENDICES
APPENDIX ACORRESPONDENCES CONCERNING THE ORIGIN OF SAILO CHIEFS, AND SLAVERY AMONGDIFFERENT ZO TRIBES IN OLDEN DAYSvi
ad
APPENDIX BNEWS REPORT ON CHIKIM KUT- 2004APPENDIX CNEWS REPORT ON THE “ZO-FEST‘ 2004“APPENDIX DMIZORAM DIARY APPENDIX EON KHUASAK & LOPHEI VILLAGESAPPENDIX FINSCRIPTION OF EX-CHIEF KHUP LIANAPPENDIX GA PORTION OF THE AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL SONGS OF THE LATE K. A. KHUP ZA THANG APPENDIX HA PORTION OF “SERMON ON THE MOUNTAIN“ IN PAU CIN HAU‘S SCRIPT APPENDIX IANNIVERSARIES AND FREQUENCIES OF THE CHIN NATIONAL DAYvii
ad
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the authors and owners of materials listed in the REFERENCES, Pu C. Chawngkunga and especially the family of the late Pu K.A. Khup Za Thang. And Salai Kipp Kho Lian and the late Dr. Vumson Suantak as well for their invaluable advices. My gratitude goes also to those who have had contributed with their invaluable suggestions and materials for this paper whose names I cannot yet list here for their own security‘s sake back in Burma. Furthermore, I am deeply grateful to both Pu L. Keivom and Dr. Lal Dena for permitting me to use their articles:
Towards ZO Unification
by Pu Keivom and
The Status of Mizo Women
by Dr. Lal Dena respectively. This paper was originally written in 1998 under the title of “
An Introduction to the Traditional Songs and Folk Dances of the Chins“
. Author viii
ad
OLD AND NEW SPELLINGSOld SPELLINGS
(used during British colonial period) and NEW SPELLINGS or TERMS used by local people with the same meaning.
HAKA
= HALKHA = HAKA
KANHOW
= KAM HAU - Those who are called
TEDIMS
today were known as
KANHOWS
during British colonial period
KHWUNGLI
= KHUANGLI
KLANGKLANG
= THANTLANG
YOKWA =
ZOKHUA
KHUAPI =
KHUAPI
LUSHAI
= LUSEI
NWENGAL
= GUNGAL - The west bank of Manipur River in Tiddim and Tonzang Townships
NWEITE =
GUITE/NGUITE
NORN = NGAWNSIYIN
= SIZANG
SOKTE
= SUKTE
TASHON
=TLAISUN = TLASUN = TAISUN = TASUN
TIDDIM*
= TEDIM
WHENOH
= HUALNGO
YAHOW
= ZAHAU* In all official documents and World Atlas this spelling
TIDDIM
is still used, although the local people prefer to use and are using TEDIM both for the town and themselves in their daily life and in writings as well. Author
i
x
ad
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ZO PEOPLE OF BANGLADESH, BURMA AND INDIA1.0 INTRODUCTION
I would like to explain in a few sentences why I decided to prepare this paper. Since mid - 1988 - and especially after Daw Aung San Su Kyi was awarded the 1991 Nobel Prize for Peace - every now and then I happened to meet people who showed some interest in the people to whom I belong - that is, Chins or Chin-Kuki-Mizo as we are often designated by outsiders. So I began searching for books, journals, booklets, articles, traveler‘s guides, etc. on my people in public and university libraries and in book stores. After years of intensive searchings I had to conclude that even in serious academic publications, prestigious encyclopaedia and almanacs, and information leaflets published by various Christian churches from the West that have followers in Chinland for decades, either no mention is made at all about us, or even if any mentions are made, the facts are mostly misleading. Although there are already a few good books written by Zo scholars on our people, their works are mostly purely academic and in book forms. And of these good books are written in Zo dialects. So these are not really suitable for strangers who just would like to have a compact yet encompassing information on us. My simple reason therefore for preparing this paper is to bridge this gap. I do hope that this paper may give outsiders a different picture of us from what all the outsiders have written about us up to this day. As we did not have a script until the American Baptist missionaries created it for us in the early 1900s we had had only orally transmitted “historical records“. I shall, therefore, heavily quote from the few existing sources, especially that of British colonialists‘ records, although these contain a great deal of false information, which is certainly due to the fact that their interpreters were uneducated former Burmese slaves of the Chins and that the main tasks of those officials were no academic undertakings. Not as the title implies, in reality this paper covers overwhelmingly about events that have taken place in East Zoram. And also in cultural matters I deal only with the traditions of the Tedim/Paite, Sizangs, Suktes, Zous and Thados, from the Tedim and Tonzang townships in northern Chin State, Burma, and neighbouring regions inside India. The simple reason is that I am more familiar with traditions from these regions.(For more reliable statistics on West Zoram visit Wikipedia under Mizoram.) Originally, the ZO people did not call themselves either Chin or Kuki. These two alien words are believed to have originated in Burmese and Bangali respectively. They called and still call themselves in any of the following terms: Asho, Sho/Cho, Laimi, Yaw, Mizo, Zomi. Since they all cannot yet agree upon a single nomenclature that covers all the Zo tribes until today, “Chin-Kuki-Mizo“ or sometimes “Chin-Kuki-Mizo-Zomi“ are often used by both outsiders and themselves. The two words: “ZOMI“ and “MIZO“ always have confused outsiders. In fact, MIZO and ZOMI have exactly the same meaning - that is, “ZO MAN“ or “ZO PERSON“. Those who prefer to call themselves ZOMI insist that it‘s grammatically more correct and therefore this terminology should be used. But those who prefer MIZO to ZOMI insist that this term had already been used officially in a historical document called the “Mizo Memorandum“, dated April 26, 1947, which was submitted to the then British Government and the Government of India by the Mizo Union, on behalf of all the Chin-Kuki-Mizo tribes. So, they argue, that it should be used. Interestingly, even those who prefer to call themselves ZOMI, for example, call an Indian“Mivom“ which literally means “man dark“ although its real meaning is supposed to be “dark/black man“ and it‘s the same with a European. He is called “Mikang“ - literally “man white“. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Note:
As the reader will see I put all the notes/remarks either immediately after the passages to which they refer, or as footnotes, according to the Chinese method, for the reader‘s convenience. Author
ad
These days two new terminologies are rapidly getting popularity and are therefore widely used among several Zo tribes, namely: ZOFATE and ZONAHTHLAK - that is, “Children of Zo“ or “Descendants of Zo“. Among the Tedim and its related dialects speakers the term: “Zo Suante“ is equally getting very popular as well now. “Zo Suante“ and “Zofate“ have exactly the same meaning. Since Mizo and Zomi have exactly the same meaning anyway, I shall use only CHIN or Chin-Kuki-Mizo or Chin/Mizo or Chin/Zo or sometimes simply ZO, and their land: Chinland or ZORAM interchangeably in this paper for the sake of convenience. In several Chin/Zo dialects “Ram“ stands for country.(Vumson first used in
Zo History
the terms “East Zoram“ for Chin State and “West Zoram“ for Mizoram.) If Zoram is used it will denote both East and West Zorams. Occasionally, the reader will come across a term: “Thado-Kuki-Mizo-Zomi“, especially where social relationships such as kinship/clan are concerned, because almost all of those who identify themselves as Thado-Kuki or Mizo or Zomi are closely intertwined each other by the same clans although they may speak different dialects. The following excerpts on the Chins are from some of the most prestigious, authoritative and internationally recognized reference books, publications of academic institutes and religious institutions.1.1 _
CHINS
or
KUKIS
A tribe living in the mountainous region between Lower Bengal and Upper Burma. They form a collection of tribes belonging to the Tibeto-Burman group of the Indo-Chinese race, and consist of three divisions: Northern Chins, who inhabit the Chin Hills and a small part of the country to the north of them; the Central Chins( known as Kamis, Kwemis, Mros, Chinboks and Chinbons) live in the Pakokku Chin Hills and the northern Arakan district; and the Southern Chins of the Arakan Yoma. The Chins are, for the most part, a warlike race, divided strictly into clans over which their leaders and upper classes have almost despotic power and influence. They are uncleanly in habits, treacherous and given to intemperance.(
The Encyclopedia Americana,
1947)1.2
_ KUKI
A name given to a group of tribes inhabiting both sides of the mountains dividing Assam and Bengal from Burma, south of Namtaleik river... In the case of the Thado Kuki who followed them, the Lushai, who drove the Thado north from the district called Lushai hills, the Lakher, and the various tribes of the Chin hills in Burma - Haka, Siyin, Sokte, etc. - there is, inspite of divergences, so strong a similarity in general type and culture that they can be fairly treated as forming a single group, ruled by chiefs on a quasi-feudal system, exogamous, patrilineal, attaching great importance to genealogy and descent... Clans claim descent from a common ancestor... Chiefs wield wide authority; their subjects are bound to them by service tenure, a man accepting a chief‘s protection assumes a vassalage which he cannot put off at will... All diesease is ascribed to spirits and can be driven off by appropriate disinfectants or ceremonies, but a beneficent Creator is believed in, to whose abode souls go after death, having to pass a malignant demon on the way... The Kuki is generally an indefatigible hunter and snarer of game, warlike, bloodthirsty and destructive. His languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman family and his folklore savours of the Arabian Nights.(
The Enclyclopaedia Britannica,
1959)
ad
1.3 _
CHINS
A group of tribes of Mongol origin, occupying the southernmost part of the mountain ranges separating Burma from India... Chin villages, often of several hundred houses, were traditionally self-contained units, some ruled by council of elders, others by headmen. There were also hereditary chiefs who exercised political control over large areas and received tribute from cultivators of the soils... The Chins have much in common with the Kuki, Lushai, and Lakher people and speak related Tibeto-Burman languages... Domestic animals, kept mainly for meat, are not milked or used for traction. Chief among them is the mithan, a domesticated breed of the Indian wild ox...Traditional religion comprises of a belief in numerous deities and spirits, which may be propitiated by offerings and sacrifices. Christian missions have made many converts...(
The New Encyclopaedia Britannica,
1986
)
1.4 _
MIZOS,
also called
LUSHAI
, or
LUSEI
Tibeto-Burman - speaking people numbering about 270,00... Like the Kuki tribes, with which they have affinities... Every village, though comprising members of several distinct clans, was an independent political unit ruled by a hereditary chief. The stratified Mizo society consisted originally of chiefs, commoners, serfs and slaves(war captives). The British suppressed feuding and headhunting but administered the area through the indigenous chiefs...(
The New Encyclopaedia Brittanica
, 1986)1.5 _
Kuki-Chin-Völker
[
Kuki-Chin-Peoples]
A collective name for a group of old Mongoloid peoples and tribes (population in 1985, 3. 5 million) in West Burma, East India and Bangladesh. It covers several other small tribes that are closely linked to the Kukis such as Chins, Mizo(Lushai) and the Meiteis or Manipuris in the Manipur plains... There was also headhunting. The Meiteis have become Hindus and there are several Christians among the Mizos and Chins.(
Brockhaus Enzyklopädie,
1990)*1.6 _
The Chins*
The Chins, who dwell in the mountainous regions of West Burma and East India, are well-skilled in fishing, hunting and weaving fine textiles..
.
(
Burma: Weltmission heute Nr. 22/
Evangelisches Missionwerk in Deutschland, 1996./This 205-page book on Burma, prepared by the German Evangelical Mission Work, under the title of
Burma: World Mission Today No. 22,
devouts only twelve lines or six sentences on the Chins. Author1.7 _
The Term “Chin“ is imprecise
. It is a Burmese word(
khyang
), not a Chin word... No single Chin word has explicit reference to all the peoples we customarily call Chin, but all - nearly all - of the peoples have a special word for themselves and those of their congeners with whom they are in regular contact. This word is almost always a variant form of a single root, which appears as zo, yo, ks u,s u, and the like. The word means, roughly, “unsophisticated“...[p. 3]. Another group of Kuki-Chin speakers are the Kuki(Shakespear, 1912).
Kuki
appears to be a Manipuri term. (Manipuri, or Meitei, is the Kuki-Chin language of a long-Hinduized people who have for many centuries ruled the Manipur Valley.). Kuki peoples inhabit the relatively low hill country
ad
in Manipur, Cachar, Tripura (or Tiperah), and possibly the northern part of the Chittagong Hills Tracts. The so-called New Kuki, especially the Thado, are Northern Chin who were pushed out of the Chin Hills proper into Manipur and into the Naga Hills of Burma and Assam by Lushai in the middle of the nineteenth century. Some of the Old Kuki, such as the Vaiphei(see Carey and Tuck, 1896; Needham, 1959), consist of refugees from the Chin Hills who were forced out earlier by similar pressure at the end of the eighteenth century...[p. 5]. The 1931
Census of India
reported about 345,000 persons speaking about forty-four distinct Chin and Chin-related dialects(
Census of India
, 1939, pp. 183-184, 189). Most of these dialects and languages are mutually unintelligible. Embress and Thomas, 1956(p. 14) estimate that there were 350,000 Chin in all of Burma in 1943 and 554,842 Kuki and Chin peoples including those in Pakistan[Bangladesh] and India in 1931...[p. 6]. However, there is no absolute separation between the Kuki and some of the northernmost Chin of Burma. Even some of the old Kuki, like the Vaiphei, were not long ago “Tiddim-type“ Chin...[p. 16]. For instance, some of the so-called “Old Kuki“ Kuki of Manipur-Assam probably did not arrive there as recently as the rest of the Old and the New Kuki. The New Kuki were pushed out from the Chin-Lushai country by their near relatives, the Lushais, in the 1700‘s and 1800‘s. The Old Kuki seem first to have been mentioned in the Manipur chronicles about 1554(Shakespear, 1909, p. 373). The cultural and social organization of the Kuki, and especially of the “older“ Old Kuki, resembles that of the Southern Chin in style and simplicity...[p. 25]. It is used in contrast to such terms as
zo
, the common Chin name for themselves, which expresses their view of being backward and uncultivated...[p. 30]. Chin are
zo mi
because they lack the civilization of the Burman, whose culture they envy, however still will not emulate...[p. 55]. (Lehman, F.K. Prof. Dr.
The Structure of Chin Society - A Tribal People of Burma Adapted to a Non-Western Civilization
, Urbana: Illinois University Press. 1963)1.8 _
Chins
**
Inhabiting the western hills of Burma as far north as the Somra Tract, and as far south as Sandoway and Thayetmyo, the Chins are divided into a great many tribes and speakers of different dialects. They use the destructive
taungya
type of shifting hillside cultivation described in chapter viii. Indirect rule, through native chiefs, has also been British practice in this area, and with equally satisfactory results from the standpoint of loyalty. In addition, the Chins have furnished many recruits for the armed forces, in peace and war. They are reputed to have low moral standards and also low standards of cleanliness, the urge to bathe being inhibited by the cold mountain air as well as by the distance to the nearest source of water. Stevenson describes their clothing as follows:
The dress of the men can be said to dwindle from little in the north to still less in the south, and the sex exhibits a magnificent resistance to the wide climatic variations to which it is exposed.
(H.N.C. Stevenson,
The Hill Peoples of Burma,
p. 7) 1.9 _
The Chins
*
-... Numbering circa 220,000 - are of Tibeto-Burman origin, migrated to Central Burma through Chindwin Valley about 300 years ago; they were driven to the mountains in the west by later comers such as the ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* Excerpts from books marked with asterisk on previous and this pages are of my own translations from the original German texts. **
Burmese Economic Life
. p. 32. Standford University Press. USA. 1947. By J. Russel Andrus(Fomer Professor of Economics, University of Rangoon)
ad
Burmans and Shans...The Chins, with the exception of a few Buddhists and Christians who have had comeinto contact with the Burmans and Europeans, are primitive Animists...
Andru
describes that the standard of the Chins‘ moral is very low, and that of their cleanliness as well which is due to their reluctance to takebath for the mountain wind is chilly and the water sources faraway...(
Burma: Land. Geschichte. Wirtschaft
, 1967; von Hans-Ulrich Storz/Schriften des Instituts für Asienkunde in Hamburg. Mr. Hans-Ulrich Storz‘s thought-provoking foreword in this book makes it an even more interesting reading - partly because it‘s the only authoritative reference book of its kind on Burma available both at the Institute of Asian Studies in Hamburg and the library of the Hamburg University. I shall quote here some sentences from this foreword:“ .
.. Burma is still a stable country. It hasn‘t broken yet the bridges to the West... Experiences have shown that it‘s already too late to concentrate intensively on a country when conflicts arise between powerful blocs and these contlicts become public. It is therefore the aim of this book that it shall help intensify the relations of the Union of Burma and the Federal Republic of Germany and thus open ways for a close cooperation between them...“
. Equally interesting are the descriptions of other ethnic groups of Burma in this book.
2.0 GEOGRAPHY
2.1.
Introduction
The Zo people have so far got two internationally recognized statehoods: Chin State in Burma and Mizoram in India. With its legal area of 36,000 sq. km Chin State is just slightly smaller than Switzerland. It was formerly known as the “Chin Hills District“ and then later as the “Chin Special Division“. The Mizoram State, which was formerly known as the “Lushai Hills Districts“and then later as the “Mizo Hills District“, has an area of 21,008 sq. km. “The Himalayas from the north of Assam shoot out a chain of spurs, which, running due south, eventually drive into the Bay of Bengal. Captain Yule, who went as Secretary to the Envoy to the Court of Ava in 1855, thus described this chain and its inhabitants:- ‘Still further westward in the Naga country, between longitude 93° and 95°, a great multiple mass of mountains starts southwards from the Assam chain. Enclosing first the level alluvial valley of Manipur, at a height of 2,500 feet above the sea, it then spreads out westward of Tipperah and the coast of Chittagong and Northern Arakan, a broad succession of unexlored and forest-covered spurs, inhabited by a vast variety of wild tribes of Indo-Chinese kindred known as Kukis, Nagas, Khynes, and by many more specific names...‘ From the southern borders of Assam and Manipur, latitude 24° approximately, these hills are now known as the Chin-Lushai tract and the inhabitants by the generic names of Chins and Lushais. This Chin-Lushai tract is bounded on the north by Assam and Manipur, on the south by Arakan, on the east by Burma, and on the west by Tipperah and the Chittagong hill tracts...“(Carey & Tuck, Vol. 1. p. 1) Territories in which the Chins inhabit extend from the Somra Tracts in Nagaland and the North Cachar Hills in India down to the Rakhine Range(Arakan Yoma), Ayeyawady(Irrawaddy) valleys and Bago Range (Pegu Yoma) in Burma. These territories are largely mountainous except in the northern and southern ends and Ayeyawaddy, Kale-Kabaw - and Gangaw Valleys. The mountain ranges, which are largely north-south oriented, are a continuation of the Naga and Patkoi Hills(Patkoi Range) extending as far south as the Rakhine Range. The highest peak in Chinland
,
Arterawttlang (Mt. Victoria ), is 3,053 metres. Aizawl, the capital of Mizoram, lies at 1,214 metres and Haka, the capital of Chin State, lies at 2,460 metres above sea level.
ad
Mizoram is a land of rolling hills, rivers and lakes. As many as 21 major hills ranges or peaks of different heights run through the length and breadth of the state, with plains scattered here and there. The average height of the hills to the west of the state are about 1,000 metres. These gradually rise up to 1,300 metres to the east. Some areas, however, have higher ranges which go up to a height of over 2,000 metres. The Blue Mountain, situated in the southeastern part of the state, is the highest peak in Mizoram. Main rivers in Chin State are Bawinu, Kaladan, Meitei(Manipur) and Tio.If Zoram is used it will denote both East and West Zorams. The biggest river in Mizoram is River Kaladan also known as Chhimtuipui Lui in local Mizo language. It orginates in Chin State in Myanmar and passes through Saiha and Lawngtlai districts in the southern tip of Mizoram and goes back to Rakhine State, Burma, and finally it enters the Bay of Bengal at Akyab. The Indian government has invested millions of rupees to set up inland water ways along this river to trade with Myanmar. The project name is known as Kaladan Multipurpose Project. Lakes are scattered all over Mizoram State, but the most important among these are Palak, Tamdil, Rungdil, and Rengdil. The Palak lake is situated in Chhimtuipui District which is part of southern Mizoram and covers an area of 30 hectares. It is believed that the lake was created as a result of an earthquake or a flood. The local people believe that a village which was submerged still remains intact deep under the waters. The Tamdil Lake is a natural lake situated 110/85 kms from Aizawl. Legend has it that a huge mustard plant once stood in this place. When the plant was cut down, jets of water sprayed from the plant and created a pool of water, thus the lake was named 'Tamdil which means of 'Lake of Mustard Plant'. Today the lake is an important tourist attraction and a holiday resort. In Chin State there is only one sizable natural lake which looks like a human heart. It is called “Rih“ at Rihkhuadar.2.2.
CLIMATE
Chin State and Mizoram have a mild climate: it is generally cool in summer and not very cold in winter. In Mizoram during winter, the temperature varies from 11°C to 21°C and in summer it varies between 20°C to 29°C. Since Chin State has several more higher mountains than Mizoram the temperature in winter can drop below freezing point in the night and frost from on the grass. Snow falls very rarely there, and when it does the Zo people say “the mountains vomit“. The entire areas are under the regular influence of monsoons. It rains heavily from May to September and the average rainfall is 254 cm, per annum in Mizoram. The average annual rainfall in Aizawl and Lunglei are 208 centimeters and 350 centimeters respectively. The average annual rainfall in Haka is 228 cm and 276 cm in Kanpetlet. Haka has an average of 118 rainy days and Kanpetlet 127 days per year. Winter in Zoram is normally rain-free. Zoram is rich in flora and fauna and many kinds of tropical trees and plants thrive in the area.2.3.
VEGETATION
Most parts of Chin State were originally covered with rain forests, as the following information will reveal. However, deforestation is a very big problem nowadays, especially in central and northern Chin State. The main culprit of this problem is the Burmese government. Since the government does not do anything for the economic development of Chin State, people have to use every available fertile plots and forests for both cultivation and for firewood. And the people themselves are also partly to be blamed because they do not look for alternative and new ways of living - that is, for instance, they keep on building new houses that are no more suitable for the present conditions, or keep on depending on traditional foodstuff that need a great deal of firewood, and so on. With regard to vegetation of Chin inhabited territories and their immediate neighbouring regions see the
ad
following quotations(quoted as posted by the Online Burma Library on 24.12.2002/ www.burmalibrary.org).2.3.1.
Chin Hills-Arakan Yoma Montane Forests (IM0109)
The Chin Hills-Arakan Yoma Montane Rain Forests [IM0109] are globally outstanding for bird richness, partly because they acted as a refugia during recent glaciation events... Much of the southern Chin Hills remains biologically unexplored. Hunting and habitat loss have led to the local extinctions of several mammals in recent times, including the gaur(Bos gaurus), elephant(Elephas maxismus), and rhinoceros(Davis et al. 1995)... (National Geographic Society 1999)...http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0109_full.html2.3.2.
Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin Rain Forests (IM0131)
The Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin Rain Forests [IM0131] has the highest bird species richness of all ecoregions that are completely within the Indo-Pacific region. Therefore these rugged mountains' biodiversity remains largely unknown. This large ecoregion represents the semi-evergreen submontane rain forests that extend from the midranges of the Ara-kan Yoma and Chin Hills north into the Chittagong Hills of Bangladesh, the Mizo and Naga hills along the Myanmar-Indian border, and into thenorthern hills of Myanmar... http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0131_full.html2.3.3.
Naga-Manipuri-Chin Hills Moist Forests (34)
This ecoregion is one of the richest areas for birds and mammals in all of Asia. This Global 200 ecoregion is made up of these terrestrial ecoregions: Northern Triangle subtropical forests; Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rain forests; Chin Hills-Arakan Yoma montane forests; Meghalaya subtropical forests; Northeast India-Myanmar pine forests...http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/images/profiles/g200/g034.html2.3.4.
Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests (IM0303)
The Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests [IM0303] is one of only four tropical or subtropical conifer forest ecoregions in the Indo-Pacific region.
Location and General Description: These forests are found in the north-south Burmese-Java Arc. The Arc is formed by the parallel folded mountain ranges that culminate in the Himalayas in the north. Moving south are the mountain ranges of Patkoi, Lushai Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur, and the Chin Hills... http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0303_full.html
3. ADMINiSTRATION
The British put several Zo tribes and their areas in today‘s Burma under a single administration area and administered it with an act known as the Chin Hills Regulation 1896. This regulation was replaced by the Chin Special Division Act of 1948, which was adopted on October 22, 1948. There were six sub-divisions in the Chin Special Division: Tiddim, Falam, Haka, Mindat, Paletwa and Kanpetlet. The Chin Special Division was changed to Chin State under Section 30(B) of the Constitution of the Union of Burma adopted on January 3,
ad
1974. And the former six sub-divisions were then transformed into nine townships: Tonzang, Tiddim, Falam, Hakha(Capital), Thantlang, Matupi, Mindat, Paletwa and Kanpetlet. Since 2000 three more townships, namely Rezua. Rihkhuadar and Cikha, were added. So, altogether there are 12 townships. Mizoram is divided into 8 districts: Aizawl, Champhai, Lawngtlai, Lunglei, Kolasib, Mamit, Saiha and Serchhip.
4.0. ECONOMY
4.1.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the mainstay of the people of Zoram. More than 70% of the total population is engaged in some form of agriculture. The age-old practice of Jhum cultivation is carried out annually by a large number of people living in rural areas. The climatic conditions of the state, its location in the tropic and temperate zones, and its various soil types along with well-distributed rainfall of 1900 mm to 3000 mm spread over eight to ten months in the year, have all contributed to a wide spectrum of rich and varied flora and fauna in Mizoram. These natural features and resources also offer opportunities for growing a variety of horticultural crops. In terms of economic development, Mizoram has lagged behind in comparison to the rest of the country. Cottage industry and other small-scale industries play an important role in its current economy. The people of Mizoram have not taken a keen responsibility for the development of industry due to lack of market raw materials. The industry is wanting but lately there is a much wider chance for the development of forest products. The 9th Five Year Plan (1997–2002) gives much priority to the "agro-based industry" as nearly 70% of the population is engaged in agriculture.4.2.
Forest Products
Thirty percent of Mizoram is covered with wild bamboo forests, many of which are largely unexploited. In spite of that, Mizoram harvests 40% of India's 80 million-ton annual bamboo crop. The current state administration wishes to increase revenue streams from bamboo and aside from uses as a substitute for timber, there is research underway to utilize bamboo more widely such as using bamboo chippings for paper mills, bamboo charcoal for fuel, and a type of "bamboo vinegar" which was introduced by Japanese Scientist Mr. Hitoshi Yokota, and used as a fertilizer. All the bamboos used in Rakhine State in Burma was extracted mainly from the Paletwas area in southern Chin State. Besides, several kinds of hardwood, such as Teak(
Tectona grandis
), Pinkado
(Xykua dolabriformis)
etc., and Cinnamon
(Cinnamomum)
are found in abundance southern Chin State. (“
Union of Burma: Customs and Culture of Indigenous Peoples - The Chins, p.13/
see References). “The pine is not the species
Longifolia
, but
Pinus khassia
, and is the best resin-producing tree in the world; it is found throughout the length and breadth of the hills, generally growing only to a moderate size. The natives use the tree for planks for building purposes and for torches...It is more than possible that a resin industry will be successfully worked in the future, as resin is scare in India and commands a high price, and each year we put less money into the hands of the natives, who, having acquired a taste for articles of European manufacture, will, when they find that cooly[coolie] work is not obtainable, procure resin and sell it either to the Forest Officers or to traders in the Upper Chindwin and Pakokku districts.“(Carey and Tuck, Vol. I, p. 8)
ad
Until today the Chins do not have any say at all in exploiting their own natural resources.
4.3.
Mines & Minerals
Zoram is predominently made of silty shale and sandstone. Limestone and igneous rocks are also found. The silty shale and limestone are of soft formation. Because of this, roads built on the slopes of the mountains in Chin State are difficult to maintain. Ngaw Cin Pau, a Chin geologist, named these rocks “Zoflysch“ because of their similirity to the Flysch rocks of the Alps in Switzerland. Suangdawmual, Bukpivum, Ngullumual, Leisan, Dawimual and many other small peaks along the the Zoram-Burma border are built of chromite and nickel bearing ultrabasic rocks. Garnierite, a nickel silicate mineral, was found there. The nickel content was 1.19 to 4.49 percent. The present main mineral of Mizoram is a hard rock of Tertiary period formation. This is mainly utilized as building material and for road construction work. However, several reports (both from Geological Survey of India and State Geology & Mining Wing of Industries Department) revealed that the availability of minor mineral in different places.4.4.
Handlooms & Handicrafts
Zo women typically use a hand loom to make clothing and other handicrafts, such as a type of bag called Pawnpui and blankets. The Mizo rarely did much craft work until the British first came to Mizoram in 1889 when a demand for their crafts was created with this exposure to foreign markets. Currently, the production of hand looms is also being increased, as the market has been widening within and outside Zoram.4.5.
Tourism
With its abundant scenic beauty and a pleasant climate, Mizoram hopes to develop its tourist-related industries. Specific tourist projects can be developed to put Mizoram on the "tourist map" of India. With the development of Reiek resort centre and a number of other resort centres in and around Aizawl, as well as establishment of tourist's huts across the entire state,tourism has been much developed. Tourists, however, require a special permit for visit called “Innerline Permit“. Anyone who wants to visit Mizoram must apply this permit at the Indian diplomatic mission in the country of his residence before leaving for India because this permit cannot be applied inside India. As for Chin State foreign tourists are not permitted to enter it without special permission from the central government. 4.6.
Energy Sector
Despite having a rich potential in hydropower, Mizoram does not having its own power generation operation worth mentioning. At present, there are 22 isolated Diesel Power Stations scattered about the state and 9 Mini/Micro Hydel Stations in operation. The above total installed capacity of the Diesel Power Stations is 26.14MW and the Mini/Micro Hydel Stations is 8.25 MW. As per the 16th Electric Power Survey of India under CEA, Government of India, the restricted peak load demand of the state during the 2002-2003 year is 102 MW. Against this, an effective capacity of about 16 MW from Diesel Power Stations and 6 MW from the Mini/Micro Hydel Stations is available from local generation at present. According to the Burmese government‘s official statistics of 2005, there were 10 hydroelectric plants
ad
constructed by the government and three more plants contructed and owned by private investors in Chin State.
5.0. INFRASTRUCTURE
5.1.
Roads
Mizoram is connected through National Highway 54. NH-150 connects the state with Seling in Mizoram, to Imphal in Manipur. NH-40A links the State with Tripura.A road between Champhai and Tiddim Myanmar will soon connect the two countries. According to the 2005 official statiscs the total length of all the motor roads in Chin State was about 1,062 miles or 1700 kilometers. Out of these only 194 miles are paved or tarred. That means the rest are only dry-season-only roads. And many of them are only jeepable. Even among these roads several were constructed and maintained by the local people without any government help. 5.2.
Air Services
Mizoram has only one airport, Lengpui Airport, near Aizawl and this Airport can be reached from Kolkata by Air within a short period of 40 minutes. Mizoram is also accessible from Kolkata via Silchar Airport, which is about 200 Kms. from the state capital of Mizoram. There were only four air ports on the edge of Chin State, namely, Kalaymyo, Gangaw, Saw and Hti Lin. But since several years ago only Kalaymyo is still in use. The rest are too small for the jet airplanes which are now in service. 5.3.
Railways
Mizoram can be easily reached by train at Bairabi rail station or via Silchar. Bairabi is about 110 Kms, where Silchar is about 180 Kms. from the state capital. Since a couple of years ago Chin State has got railway connections to central Burma through the Pakokku-Gangaw-Kalaymyo railways. 5.4.
Water Ways
Mizoram is in the process of developing water ways with the port of Akyab Sittwe in Myanmar along Chhimtuipui River.India is investing $103 million to develop the Sittwe port on Myanmar's northern coast, about 160 km from Mizoram. Myanmar committed $10 million for the venture, which is part of the Kaladan Multipurpose project [8]. Kaladan River is navigable from Sittwe up to Paletwa, a town in southen Chin State.There are steamship services along the Chindwin River and Kalaywa is a port through which Chin State has access to the rest of the country. Kalaywa itself is located in Sagaing Division.
6. EDUCATION and HEALTH
Under Mizoram University, there are 29 undergraduate colleges including 2 professional institutions affiliated with the university. The total enrollment in these institutions is approximately 5200 students.According to the 2005 official statistics of Burma there were 1057 Primary Schools, 86 Middle Schools and 39 High Schools in Chin State. There were 4,540 teachers. There are one university, one computer college and another technical college all in Kalaymyo in Sagaing Division. Chin State has only 24 hospitals with
ad
altogether 500 beds, and 45 Health Centres in Chin State in 2005.
7.0 HISTORY
7.1.
Introduction
It was the Portugese, who first came to Arakan and Bengal, and the British long arm of colonialism appeared as a trading company called “The East India Company“. It established a base in Bengal to trade with Bengalis, and in 1760, Meer Kasim, the King of Bengal, ceded Chittagong to Lord Clive of the East India Company. The British then invaded the Assam and Surma valleys, driving out the Burmans who occupied these territories. The first contacts between the British and the Chins took place in 1765, when the British in the name of the East India Company invaded Cachar and Sylhet( India). The British expanded their trade into Burma and annexed lower Burma in 1824. This is known as the first Anglo-Burman War(1824-1826). The British drove the Burmans out of Manipur and at the same time invaded Arakan (present day Rakhine State in Burma). The British then advanced on to the southern part of Chinland. The first armed conflicts between the British and Chins took place in 1824-26 in Paletwa area in southern Chinland(present day Chin State). The Khami(also known as Khumi) Chins stood against the British in various villages such as Miwa, Tansi, Kuwa, Singtaung, Salingmen, and Maungnama hills. The British took over the southern part of Paletwa region and opened an outpost in Paletwa in 1826. Between 1834 and 1854 alone the British recorded neineteen raids. In 1860 the Lakher Chins(whom the British called “Shendus“)made such a fierce raid on the Chakmas in Chittagon Hills that the British recorded the event as the “Great Kuki Invasion“. Between 1863 and 1869 the Chins made thirty nine raids on the Arakan Valley. The official British invasion of Chinland/Zoram began in 1871 with a military expedition made up of two columns. “The Government of India now decided that an expedition should be made into the Lushai country during the ensuing cold weather(1871-72). It was decided that the force should consist of two columns, the right advancing from Chittagong and the left from Cachar. General Brownlow, C.B., commanded the former, with Captain Lewin, Superintendent of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, as Civil Officer; and General Bourchier, C.B., with Mr. Edgar, Deputy Commissioner of Cachar, as Civil Officer, was in charge of the left or Cachar column. In addition to these two columns, a contingent of Manipuris accompanied by General Nuthall, the Political Agent of Manipur, made a demonstration across the southern border to co-operate with General Bourchier‘s portion of the expedition.“(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, pp.15-16). Both columns had more than 500 men each. This expedition was known as
The Lushai Expedition, 1871-72
. 7.2.
THE CHIN-LUSHAI EXPEDITION(1889-90)
The Governnment of Bengal had good reason for wishing to settle the Lushais once and for all at exactly the same time as the Burma Government found it imperative to face the Chin question in the interests of the newly acquired province of Upper Burma. It therefore happened that the Chins were dealt with from the east and the Lushais from the west at the same time, for while a column from Burma was being pushed forward into the Siyin country in December 1888, Colonel Tregear in command of a column of 850 strong, with two mountain guns, entered the Lushai country from Chittagong
via
Rangamutti and Demagiri...The result of the 1888-89 expedition was the punishment of several villages and the establishment of Fort Lungleh in the heart of the South Lushai tract...As soon as the country was again practicable Colonel, now Brigadier-General, Tregear marched a second time into Lushai from Chittagong to complete the work of the former expedition and was placed in command of 3,400. The expedition is called The Chin-Lushai Expedition of
ad
1889-90. Forces advancing from Burma and Assam worked in co-operation. The punishment of the Lushais was completed.“(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, p.13) “...The troops operating from Burma were to be divided into two columns, one called the Fort White column operating from Fort White as a base against the Siyins and the tribes between the base and the Manipur river, the other called the Gangaw column starting from Gangaw as a base and advancing
via
Yokwa on Haka...The Southern column[the Gangaw column] which was to advance from Kan into the southern Chin Hills under General Symons, consisted of 1,869 men. The Northern column, which was to operate from Fort White, consisted of 1,622 men under Colonel Skene.“(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, pp. 33-34)
7.3. HISTORY OF THE LAIS(HAKAS, KLANGLANGS, YOKWAS, KAPI, AND THETTAS
7.3.1.
Origin of the Lais
_ The clans which claim the title of Lais are the Hakas, Klangklangs, Yokwas, Thettas, and Kapis, as well as certain other independent southern villages. The first two are universally acknowledged as Lais, and refuse to admit that the others belong to their race, asserting that they are of a different origin...There was now an enormous tract of country at the disposal of the Haka Chiefs, and certain portions appear to have been alotted to each, and it became the custom for the younger branches of the chief families to leave the mother-village and found villages in the newly acquired territory under the protection of, and paying tribute to, the Hakas...The Haka territory was acquired more by colonization than by force of arms, and less than one-fourth of the villages now tributary to the Haka Chiefs are the result of conquest. Apparently in the time of Yahmon and Tat Sin the territory then belonging to Haka was divided amongst the Chiefs, who sent out the younger branches of their families to form and rule villages which should pay tribute to themselves at Haka. In nearly every case the descent of the Chiefs now ruling villages can be traced back to the old Haka stock, the chief families of which are, - (1) Shanpi, (2) Shante, ( 3) Nunthwasun, (4) Darkwasun, (5) Kenlaut, and the following pedigrees show how the Chiefs were related to each other, and the names of the villages still ruled by their direct descendants, as well as the relationships upon which the present Haka Chiefs base their claim to levy tribute. The disarmament of the Hakas was commenced in 1895, and up to the end of March in that year 605 guns had been withdrawn. (Carey and Tuck, Vol. 1, pp. 152-156)7.3.2.
The Haka-Burman War
_ The Hakas now declared that they were no longer friendly with the Burmans, and commenced a series of raids which were only put to an end by our occupation of the hills. The Burmans seem to have suffered in patience until Lon Seo, the grandfather of Vanlein[Van Lian], was ruling Haka, when they determined to send a punitive expedition into the hills, and an army said to have been 1,000 strong and led by Maung Myat San, apparently the same man as the leader of the Burmans in the attack on the Lushais, advanced into the hills. Bondwa, Yokwa, Vanhna, and Haka were destroyed in succession, the Lais offering but little opposition to the advance of the force. The Burmans had hoped to find supplies at Haka, but all the grain had been removed, and finding themselves short of provisions they began to retreat by the line along which the Hata road now runs. The Lais swarmed upon their flanks and rear, and at the pass half-way between Haka and Faron a successful onslaught, led in person by Lon Seo, created a panic, and the Burmans fled in all directions. The Hakas boast that only Maung Myat San, who knew the paths, escaped. In any case the defeat was decisive, for the Burmans never again attempted to invade the Haka terrritory, while the Lais, emboldened by their success, organized a series of ferocious raids into Burma which were almost invariably
ad
successful, and by which they obtained guns, money, and cattle in ransom for captives...(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, pp. 152-156)7.3.3.
Visit of Chins to Rangoon
_ Late in September[1891]permission was given for a party of Chiefs to be taken to Rangoon and after some difficulty, representative Chiefs of Haka, Thetta, Klangklang, Kapi, and Yokwa were persuaded to go. It was hoped that the visit would show the Chins how small and insignificant their country was and give them an idea of the power and resources of the British. To this end they were shown the garrison and batteries at Rangoon, and parades were held for their edification at Myingyan and Mandalay. These hopes were realized to some extent, for the Chiefs returned, astounded at the steamers, railways, and machinery, dazed by the speed and distances they had travelled, and bewildered and cowed at the size and population of the towns. They were, however, too uncivilized to understand all they had seen, and it is feared that their friends and relatives do not believe all that those who visited Rangoon tell them, but put them down as travellers‘ tales. (Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, p. 60)7.3.4.
The Haka and Thado-Kuki Rebellions(1917-19)
*
When World War I broke out in Europe Britain mobilized all her human resources to add strength to her fighting troops, and she recruited soldiers and noncombatants from all her colonies. In 1916 about half a million noncombatants from Brtish India and Burma were sent to Mestopotamia, Iran, France and Turkey. Among them were 4,000 young Chins. 2,100 young men from the Lushai Hills District went to France voluntarily. The British demanded a fixed number of young able-bodied men from every tribe and village for the French labour camps. But more men were demanded in 1917, one thousand men from each of the administrative subdivisions of Falam, Haka and Tedim. The Chins, who had never left their country, feared that their youths would never come back, as was the case with some who had gone earlier. Moreover, the people still resented the collection of arms and slaves by the British. So the first uprising broke out in the Haka region in September 1917 by Vankio, Chief of Zokhua. The rebellion was joined by other chiefs in the region, namely Haka and Thlantlang. From the main areas of uprising in Zokhua, Khuapi, Aitung, Surkhua, Hnaring and Sakta the rebellion spread in the later part of 1918 to Zonghing in Mindat and the southern Lushai Hills, covering the upper Bawinu to Wantu, Lailet and Ngaphai. 18 villages were burned down and more than 600 guns were confiscated at the end of the uprising. As Pamberton, the British negotiator, ceded part of the Chin country to Manipur. The land occupied by the Thados fell within the semi-independent Minipur Kingdom. When in 1917 Manipur authoritiesdemanded that a large number of young men go to Europe, the Thado chiefs decided to stand against the Manipuris and the British. They refused to send a single man. The uprising was joined by other Thados,
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––* In his dissertation(
Religion and Politics among the Chin People in Burma -1896-1949.
Uppsala University. 2000, Dr. Lian Hmung L. Sakhong) Sakhong has mentioned only about the Haka Rebellion, but completely omitted the other two major rebellions: the Sizang-Gungal - and Thado-Kuki Rebellions. Sakhong comes from Haka. In this dissertation he writes: “At one time or another, from the first invasion in 1871 to the last and final war in 1919, every branch, every clan and every tribe of the Chin was involved in the resistance. But the last and final war was fought
only
by the Laimi tribe, particularly from Haka and its surrounding areas such as Zokhua, Senthang, Zophei, Lautu and Mara. Therefore, the war was commonly known in Chin as
Lai Ral
[Lai War].“ p. 245. Actually, Vumson has dealt extensively with both of the Thado-Kuki and Haka rebellions under the title of
Thado-Haka Resistance Movement 1917-1919
in his book(pp. 133-137). And Sakhong has had even quoted several times in his dissertation from this book.
ad
who lived in the hill regions surrounding the Manipur valley, covering an area of 7,000 square miles. As the British had collected arms from the Thados prior to the uprisings they had to use mostly only spears and bows and a handful of guns at the begining of the rebellion. Even then the rebellion lasted from December 1917 up to May 1919. In early 1918 the British employed 2,400 rifles under the command of Brigadier-General Macquoid, whose base was in Mawlaik. Almost one third of all the Thado villages were burned down to the last house and several Thado chiefs and resistance fighters were captured and sent to jails where some of them died in captivity. Altogether 970 guns were confiscated from the Thados areas alone from the time of the British annexation to the end of the rebellion.
7.4.
THE HISTORY OF THE SIYIN TRIBE
(Origin and distribution of the Siyins)
Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, pp.127-133 7.4.1.
Origin of the Siyins
_ “The origin of the progenitors of the Siyin tribe is, according to the natives, shrouded in mystery. Tradition states that a gourd fell from the heavens and, bursting with the fall, emitted a man and a woman; these became the Chin Adam and Eve, and their garden of Eden was Chin Nwe, a village already mentioned. This story is not peculiar to the Siyins, but is believed by all the tribes in the Northern Chin Hills...As the Sokete forefathers left the first village and moved south, thus earning the name of “Sok“ Te, so the Siyins moved east and settled near some alkali springs, after which the sept was given the general name of “She“=alkali and “Yan“= side. The “Sheyantee“ has been corrupted into “Siyin“ by the Burmans and we have accepted their pronunciation for general use. The Siyins are called “Taute“ or “Taukte“ by the Luashais and Southern Chins, “Tau“ meaning “stout“ or “sturdy“ and “te“ is the plural affix implying “people“. ... The history of the Siyin tribe before Chief No-man‘s [Ngo Mang] reign is not exciting; the tribe was small and not in position to annoy its neighbours. In No-man‘s reign, however, the Siyins waged wars in Lushai, fought against the Manipur army in 1857, and had no less than six wars with the Tashons, in three of which the latter and the Burmans were allies. On one occassion the Siyins were divided against themselves and No-man had to face the united forces of the Tashons, Burmans, Soktes, and Limkhais... Kuppow[Khup Pau, son of Ngo Mang] then set out to meet the Burmans and attacked them on the Letha range and entirely overthrew them and chased them back to Burma. The Siyins state that they took four heads, two prisoners, one cannon, two guns, and all the baggage of the force. Kuppow then started out to meet the second Burmese army, which was advancing on Koset[Khuasak] from the north; but it had already heard of the overthrow of the eastern force and retreated through the Sokte tract back to the plains, paying the Soktes a bribe for assisting them in their retreat. This was the last Burmese attempt before our occupation of Upper Burma. The next foreign force to enter the Siyin tract was that under General Faunce in 1888-89. the Siyins say that they never raided in Burma before the time when Kanhow[Kam Hau] was Chief of the Kanhows and No-man was Chief of the Twantaks... In No-man‘s time the Siyins were chiefly armed with spears, and hence their heavy losses. No-man, however, realized that the Siyins were but a small community and that to hold its own it must be well armed. During his lifetime the Siyins first became possessed of arms, procured for the most part from Burma. In Koppow‘s time the majority of the guns acquired by the tribe came from the west and were purchased from the Lushais. The deadly feud with Burma, which commenced in No-man‘s time owing to the murder of Chins in the Kale valley, was prosecuted orginally from motives of revenge. But the Siyins soon discovered that raiding was profitable also, as the captives whom they carried off could be ransomed for guns. In No-man‘s time the Siyins armed themselves by capturing Burmans, whom they exchanged for guns, sulphur, lead and iron.
ad
7.4.2.
Advance into the Siyin Country
(The Expedition of 1889-89) Preparations for Operations against the Siyins
_
An expedition against the Chins on modified scale was now sanctioned. It was determined to deal first of all only with the Siyins and to inflict on them such a crushing blow as not only to cripple them for the future, but also to terrify the Tashons into giving up the rebelsShwe Gyo Byu
*
and his followers, and the Shan captives.
Commencement of the Operations
_ On the 7th December[1888] the Siyins commenced the fighting by mortally wounding Lieutenant Palmer, R.E., who was in command of the Madras Sappers. He was shotthrough the stomach from an ambush close to the stockade and died the next day and was buried at Kambale...On Christmas day a determined attack was made on the working party, which was under the direction of Lieutenant Butcher of the 42nd Gurkhas. The Chins were in great force, and we now know that the Tashons and Siyins were fighting side by side on this occasion. The Chins swooped down from the heights on to the party, which was working on a narrow spur, and attacked them from all four sides, fighting under cover of heavy undergrowth... Whilst disputing every stage of our advance into their hills, the Chins showed considerable tactical ability by taking offensive in the plains and attacking Shan villages and our posts in the rear of the advancing column.
Advance into the Hills
_ On the 30th December[1888] Sir George White arrived at Kambale and accompanied the force, which continued steadily advancing up the hills, the Sappers assisted by coolies making a road in the track, along which were constructed rough stockades, in which the troops slept and rations were stored. The troops found their route always heavily stockadeed and the stockades generally held by the enemy, who never ceased to ambush when opportunity occurred, both day and night.
Encounter with Siyins
_ On 27th January[1889] the road-making party was again confronted by Chins. The working party was sent back to the stockade and the troops, now unencumbered, attacked the enemy, who retired slowly, making a stubborn resistance, till they reached formidable and skilfully placed stockades, where they made a stand. Sir George White, at our stockade, hearing heavy firing in front, joined the attacking party with a small enforcement of the 42nd Gurkhas, and at once ordered, and took prominent part in the charge, which was “brilliantly led by Lieutenant-Colonel Skene, D.S.O.[He later was killed in action in Manipur. tzd] Sir George White
,
in a telegram to the Chief Commissioner of Burma, described the action as follows:-
‘Enemy
**
yesterday attacked our working party on road above this and held our covering party, 40 British and 100 Gurkha, from 9 till 2, when I arrived and ordered their positions to be charged. We carried all, driving them entirely away, getting off ourselves wonderfully cheaply. Only one Norfolk dangerously wounded. Enemy in considerable numbers, using many rifles and ammunition. They fired at least 1,000 rounds, standing resolutely until actually charged, even trying to outflank us. Their loss probably about eight or ten, but they were carried down the khuds at once.
Most difficult enemy to see or hit I ever fought.‘
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––* He was known in Burma as “Prince Shwe Gyo Byu“, who led a rebellion against the British in 1887 in the districts of Myingyan, Chindwin and Pagan areas in central Burma. He and his followers took refuge in the Tashon territory. They later voluntarily surrendered to the British, but he was hanged some years later.
** The resistance forces consisted of 1,200 Sizangs, 400 Kamhaus and 30 Sukte.(Vumson p. 118)
ad
(Telegram No. 82, dated the 28th. January 1889)
The result of this action was a serious blow to the Siyins and they now realized that it was impossible to save their villages. The fight had taken place at one of their historic battle-fields, for it was here that theyhad overthrown an army sent against them by the King of Burma in former days.
*
On 22nd January after several skirmishes, in which we suffered loss, General Faunce proceeded to the summit of the Letha range and from an altitute of 8,200 feet looked down on the Siyin villages lying 3,000 feet below him. No. 4 stockade was established on 31st January and No. 5 three days later. Accompanied by Sir George White
**
and Major Raike, General Faunce advanced on Koset(Siyin) on 4th February with a strong force.(Carey & Tuck, Vol. 1, pp. 26-29)
Manner of dealings with Siyins
_
Experience has taught us that we should not allow the Siyins to scatter in small hamlets, and for years to come it will probably be necessary to confine them to large villages placed near our posts and out of sight of their once happy raiding grounds in Burma. We have also learned that the Siyin is a thief by nature and must not be trusted. Owing to the great difficulty in detecting offences it is very advisable to hold the whole tribe responsible for every theft which is committed in the Siyin country, unless the offender is handed up for punishment...To Political Officers of the future the following advice is ventured. Never pardon a Siyin for any offence, never allow Kaikam[Khai Kam] to return to Chinland, and never forget that we owe a deep debt of gratitude to Mang Lon[Mang Lun], the Sagyilain [Sakhiling/Liimkhai] Chief, who stood by us and assisted us during years of great anxiety and when the Siyins were armed and formidable.(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I. p. 134)7.4.3.
The Battle of Siallum(Tartan)
***
-
On 4th May 1889 the last action of the expedition was fought and it merits full description. Some new huts had been noticed on the site of Tartan[Taitan], and to destroy these a party was sent from Fort White(Thuklai) on 4th May. The following account is taken almost verbatim from the report of Captain C.H. Westmoreland, 42nd Gurkha Light Infantry... The village called by us “New Tartan“ is known to the Chins as Shellum[Siallum], and they give the following account of the fight. Shellum was a settlement in which about100 persons of the Bweman[Buanman] clan lived. They had built block-houses in case of surprise by the troops, who actually did surprise them; the first intimation they received of their approach was seeing a fox-terrier which was in advance of the troops.
The Chins, men, women, and children, all crowded into the block-houses, approximately 80 in number; they had time to get well into their positions as the troops marched past the village before they saw it. The troops then turned and attacked the block-houses. Tweenty-nine Chins were killed and 11 wounded.
Lyan Kam[Lian Kam] the Bwenman Chief, was killed.––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
*
Footnotes 1
Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, p. 133:
“The fight took place at the same spot which the Siyins held so doggedly against General Faunce‘s advance in 1889.
Footnote 2.
The Burmese army‘s invasion in question took place in Kasone, 1239[January 1878] according to Burmese chronicles.
Authour‘s Note:
And some of the greatest battles between the British and Japanese in Burma also took place around this location in World War II.
See MAP 4.**
He was born on July 6, 1835. Educated at Sandhurst, entered the Army in 1853; served in the Indian Mutiny with the 27th Inniskilling‚ Fusilieers, and in the Afghan War of 1879-80 with the 92nd Gordon Highlanders. In September 1885 he was appointed to a brigade of the Madras army detailed for service in Burma, and took part in the occupation of Mandalay. From 1886-1889, he commanded the forces in Upper Burma[with the rank of Major- General]. He returned to his Headquarters in Mandalay in the middle of February 1889 after conquering the Siyins. On the 8th of April 1893, he succeeded Lord Roberts as Commander-in-Chief in India, a post he held until his return to England in 1897, when he was appointed Quartermaster-General of the Forces in England. In 1899 he was selected to command the British forces in Natal, South Africa. His name is especially associated with the defence of Ladysmith, where the British lost 12,000 men. He received the V.C.(on three recommendations for two separate Victoria Crosses) and C.B. and a brevet lieutenant-colonelcy in 1879 for his services in the Afghan war./Time.(Vum Ko Hau. pp. 396-398) For further information on him, especially how he got the Victoria Cross, visit Wikipedia under
George Stuart White.
*** See PHOTO 1
ad
Dolyin‘s[Do Lian] youngest brother was killed and Tan Chim[Thang Cin], another brother, wounded. Dolyin came out of it all right, but five years later died in the Myingyan jail.(THE BATTLE OF TARTAN
**
by Sir Betram S. Carey, K.C.I.E., C.B./Vum Ko Hau, pp. 168-69).
_
Telegram from the District Staff Officer, Burma, to the Chief Secretary to the Chief Commissioner, Burma.- No. 1283, dated the 9th May 1889. “ General Faunce wires. “Begins: 323 C.F., Fort White, May 5th 1889. A new Siyin village near site of Tartan,south-east of this, having been seen from Sagyilain by party referred to in my 320C.F., I sent 65 Rifles, Norfolk, 60 Rifles, 42nd, under Major Shepherd, Norfolk, yesterday to destroy new Tartan which consisted of 15 houses. No opposition till after troops entered village, at bottom of which two very strong stockades, flanking each other and connected by covered way with plank-roof. Siyin Chins held their fire till troops were within 50 yards.
They stood their ground and fought with great pluck, eight being killed with the bayonet. In the first stockade their loss was 30 killed and many wounded. I regret our loss was heavy.“
(Vum Ko Hau, p. 169.)Pau Thual, a heroic defender of the Taitan Fort , composed this song:
*
Phung Sakluang leh leido sakluang Tul Luang thing bang hong ki phom Phung luang lumsuang bang beal ing Pu von min nam sial ing Bodies of relatives and enemy Were heaped like logs on one another Bodies of relatives served as my fort And called the heroic names of my clansmen as I killed the enemy
The following poem was composed by the late Rev. T. Hau Go Sukte(see RELIGION) in honour of the heroines and heroes of the Battle of Siallum.
SIALLUM FORTRESS
(Battle of Siallum 4th May 1889)
Mark ye well this honoured spot,Stained with blood of heroes slain;They to keep our ancient lot,Fought a horde from Great Britain.Mark ye th’historic date,Eighteen eighty nine May fourth;
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* Vum Ko Hau, p. 232Note:
Emphases
on the previous two and this pages are of my own. Author
ad
When for us who born of late,They their precious blood poured forth;Sowed the seed of liberty.
(Source: X-Sender: khoiksm@hotmail.com[Rev. Khoi Lam Thang]To: suantak@us.netCc: zomi@yahoogroups.com, Zoni@onelist.com, ciimnuai@yahoogroups.com, Date: Thu, 24 May 2001 11:45:34 -0000Subject: [ZONET] May ni 4 ni leh SIALLUM KULH
––––––––––––––
_
The Chin leader[Vum Ko Hau] is heir to the ruling Lunman clan of the Siyin Chins. Some of his grand uncles fell in the action against General Sir George White‘s army at No. 3 Stockade and at Tartan in the Siyin Valley.
At this latter place 60 out of 80 holders of the Fort fell on May 4, 1889.
Lieut.-Colonel F.S. LeQuense won the Victoria Cross (
Times
April 18th 1950.) But his own dashing qualities of leadership and toughness in resisting Burma‘s enemies during the Second World War were natural qualities he breathed at his birthplace: Fort White. This very hight post bears the name of Field Marshal Sir George White, V.C., O.M., G.C.B.,G.C.S.I., G.C.M.I.E., G.C.I.E., G.C.V.O., LL.D., who took three years to subdue the heroic Siyin Chins after the fall of Mandalay and the humiliation of King Thibaw.(Diplomats in Outline:Vum Ko Hau of Siyin Valley - “THE DIPLOMATIS“ The Review of
the
Diplomatic and Consular World. London./Vum Ko Hau, p. 135.)7.4.4.
The Siyin-Nwengal[Sizang-Gungal] Rebellion(1892-93)
*
At the beginning of the year 1892 the impact of the British presence was felt everywhere. Coolies were demanded from villages and heavy fines were increasingly imposed for any sign of opposition. What made the Chins most determined to oppose the British was their demand for the freeing of slaves and the collection of guns as fines. In the Hualngo-Lusei area, Nikhuai, a Zahau chief, who ruled a mixture of Lusei, Zahau and Paite tribes rebelled against the British. Three other Lusei chiefs also refused to meet British demands. Several Chin tribes in the Gungal area(the right bank of the Manipur River), the Sukte and Kamhau tracts rebelled against the British, including Thuam Thawng, Chief of Kaptel. Thuam Thawng persuaded other Chins, especially the Sizangs, to stand against the British. Chief Khai Kam of Khuasak, Thuam Thawng, Pau Dal(son of Thuam Thawng), and Khan Hau, Chief of Heilei, decided to send messengers to Lusei, Haka, Tashon and Za Hau chiefs. The messengers brought back news of the willingness of these people to cooperate with them, and it was decided to invite Mr. Carey, the Political Officer, to Pumva village and toambush and kill him. “Whilst engaged on this tour in the south, Twum Tong[Thuam Thawng], the Chief of Kaptyal[Kapteel], succeeded in inducing the Twuntak[Thuantak] and Toklai[Thuklai] clans of Siyins to join common cause with him, to rebel and attempt to drive our troops from the hills.
**
The story of the outbreak of the rebellion andthe subsequent operations was given in detail by Mr. Carey in a report to the local Government, dated the 26th May 1893, and the following extract from his report may be utilized to continue the thread of this narrative: - –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* Under the term “Siyin“ in this particular case the British meant those who were and still are living at such villages as Pimpi, Shwimpi(Suangpi), Phunom, Zung, Thangnuai, Laibon(Laibung), Mualtuk, Dimlo, Darbon(Dakbung) etc. These villages are located in the immediate vicinity of these core Siyin villages: Toklaing(Thuklai), Koset(Khuasak), Bweman(Buanman), Sagylain(Sakhiling/Limkhai), Lope(Lophei), Pumba(Pumva), Voklak, Dolluang, Tamdeang and Theizang. Author** See next page for Footnote 1.
ad
‘On 1st September 1892 I left Fort White on a protracted tour of inspection in the Southern Chin Hills, and Mr. Fowler was left in charge of the Northern Chin Hills. When I left Fort White I looked on the behaviour of the Siyins and Kanhows as satisfactory, all the Chiefs with the exception of Karmlung of Pomba and Kuppow of Pimpi having come into wish me good-bye, and I had not a suspicion of the deep plot which was then being planned by the very men whowere bidding me farewell, and as for the conduct of the Nwengals I looked on it as annoying rather than dangerous,and I was counting on bringing them into order in another three months and as soon as the rains ceased...On the 20th September Mr. Fowler telegraphed to me that he had received information that Lushais and Yahows had met at Kaptyal to arrange with the Nwengals a plan for open hostilities against the Government, and that the Pimpi Chins sympathized with the movement. On receipt of this news I made a double march to Falam and interviewed the Falam Chiefs, who denied all knowlege of the occurrence. I telegraphed to Mr. Fowler that such a thing as Lushais and Chins combining was impossible as the Northern Chins and the Lushais are old enemies, and I informed him that it was improbable, now that the open season was at hand, that those villages implicated in the rising of May had met and were discussing the advisability of war or surrender. I also instructed him to warn Pimpi not to be led into trouble and to remind them of all they suffered in 1888-90...‘.
Mr. Fowler‘s answer was that Twum Tong had sent messengers offering to surrender and asking for terms, and this action on his part I looked at as very natural, as Twum Tong had much to lose by war, his magnificent village had never been destroyed, and to this fact was due his influence and the size of his village, which was largely recruited from the Sokte villages which had been destroyed in 1888-89... During October and November the Chin plan of campaign was carried on with vigour by the Siyins, but poor spirit by the Nwengals; we lost several men killed and wounded, the telegraph line was destroyed, mules were stolen, the Fort White-Kalemyo road blocked, and No. 3 Stockade attacked and fired into on several occasions...On the 10th November Tannwe [Thangnuai] was destroyed and on the same day a large combined force of Siyins and Sokte attempted to capture the mules and cut up their escort. The Chins were driven off with loss and hunted over the hills...In conclusion I am able to report that the Siyins and Nwengals have received very severe punishment for their dastardly outrage on 9th October and that the great majority of the rebel guns have been withdrawn, whilst several of the most dangerous characters have been deported to Burma...Taking all matters into consideration, I now think that the Siyin-Nwengal rebellion was the very best thing that could have happened for the future peace of the Northern Hills and the Kale valley. I now only regret that it cost us the life of Myook Maung Tun Win and the lives of so many soldiers...All through this report I have borne in mind that the military operations were for a large portion of the expedition personally conducted by a very senior Military Officer, Brigadier-General Palmer, C.B., and I have therefore refrained from encroaching on what will form the subject of his dispatches. I must, however, if only to acquit myself of the charge of egoism in my report on the expedition, place it on record that the great results which have been achieved, in what is probably the most lengthy season‘s work which has ever been known in the Assam chain of mountains(9th October 1892-24th May 1893) reflect the highest credit on the troops engaged. No one realizes more than I do that it is one thing to plan and another to carry out those plans, and that the policy and plans were loyally carried out is exemplified by the result of the partial disarmament of a mountain tract, fully 80 miles in length and 40 in breadth(see accompanying map), and –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
** Footnote 1
.(from previous page): When the Nwengals attacked Botung and resisted Captain Stevens‘ advance to the assistance of that garrision, the Siyins had in no way identified themselves with the revolt, and it was not until July or August that they were persuaded to espouse Twum Tong‘s cause. That old Chief realized that the murder of Me San and the attack on Botung would not pass unpunished, and he therefore convened several councils to discuss the action which he should take. Kaikam, the son of Kuppow, the Siyin Chief, was notorious for his love of raiding and warfare, and Twum Tong induced him to go to Kaptyal to attend his meetings. He had but small difficulty in persuading him that the Government intended to disarm all the Chins piecemeal and that the Nwengals would be dealt with first and after the Siyins. He explained that, if the surrounding tribes would but combine, there should be no difficulty in driving the troops from the hills and thus saving their guns. Kaikam and Twun Tong took an oath to stand by each other and to attack the troops...“
ad
peopled by an offshoot of the great Kuki tribe and consequently cousins to the warlike Angamis and turbulent Naga tribes...“(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, pp. 81-97) The Sizangs sent a message to the Political Officer at Fort White(10 kilometres from Pumva), informing him that Thuam Thawng was ready to surrender himself and that he brought with him an elephant tusk, a rhinoceros horn and 150 guns to be presented to the political officer. But Mr. Carey was called to southern Chin Hills, so that Mr. Maung Tun Win, the Township Officer in the northern Chin Hills, was assigned to the task of going to Pumva to receive Thuam Thawng and his presents and guns. On October 9, 1892, Mr. Tun Win and his two interpreters, and 30 soldiers who escorted them, on their way to Pumva in the Sizang region, were ambushed by the Sizangs. Only five soldiers escaped. The rest, including Maung Tun Win and his two Burmese interpreters, Aung Gyi and Aung Zan, were killed.(They were former slaves of the Chins and served as interpreters for Carey, the Political Officer, since 1888.) The British retaliation was harsh. The British sent Brigadier General Palmer with a force of 2,500 men with two mountain guns. Hundreds of villages in the Sukte and Kamhau tracts were burned down to the ground and livestock taken away and crops destroyed as well. Besides, the British took family members of resistance fighters as hostages. Due to lack of food it was impossible to keep women and children in the jungle, so they had to come out again from their half-a-year hiding. At the end of the “Siyin-Gungal Rebellion“ several chiefs and resistance fighters from Win and his two interpreters, were killed. The British retaliation was harsh. The British sent Brigadier General Palmer with a force of 2,500 men with two mountain guns. Hundreds of villages in the Sukte and Kamhau tracts were burned down to the ground and livestock taken away and crops destroyed as well. Besides, the British took family members of resistance fighters as hostages. Due to lack of food it was impossible to keep women and children in the jungle, so they had to come out again from their half-a- year hiding. At the end of the “Siyin-Gungal Rebellion“ several chiefs and resistance fighters from various tribes had either surrendered or been captured and sent to jails in Burma, where some of them died in captivity. Among them were Chief Thuam Thawng, who died in Kindat Jail in December 1893, and his son, Pau Dal, died in the same Jail in January 1894. Chief Khai Kam of Khuasak was sentenced to life and banished on the notorious Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. 7.4.5.
THE SIYIN REBELLION
By Major General R.C. Stewart C.B.Commanding Burma DistrictDated Chindwin River: 21st February 1893 I beg to note, for the Chief Commissioner‘s information, the state of affairs in the Chin Hills, as the result of my late visit to Fort White and Haka. Note on the state of affairs in the Chin Hills in February 1893.Military Situation: The Chief Commissioner is aware of the circumstances connected with the murder of the Myook and a portion of the escorts by the Siyins and Nwengals, and subsequent telegrams and diaries have related the progress of the revolt and of the operations which were deemed necessary to suppress it. On the first outbreak of the Siyins on the 9th October 1892 the garrisons of Fort White was reinforced by two guns ofNo. 7 Bombay Mountain Battery, and 100 rifles with Headquarters, 1st Burma Battalion, under Captain Presgrave, and subsequently by 200 rifles Norfolk Regiment, under Captain Baker, which enable the offensive to be taken with vigour; and General Palmer, Commanding the Myingyan District, arrived at Fort White on the 1st December and assumed control of the operations. As the most effective way of dealing with the Siyins, General Palmer asked for more troops, and so 300 rifles, 5th Burma Battalion under Lieutenant
ad
Taylor, and the Headquarters and 400 rifles, 6th Burma Battalion, under Captain Keary, D.S.O., were added to the force. Posts were then established at Dimlo, Phunnum, and Montok; and on the 2nd Januray General Palmer with two guns, 100 rifles, Norfolk Regiment; 50 rifles, 21st Pioneers, 200 rifles, 1st Battalion; 100 rifles, 5th Burma Battalion; moved from Fort White across the Nankate[Vangteh] and on the 13th January occupied Kaptial, [Kaptel] the principal and most recalcitrant village of the Nwengals. The policy throughout had been to harry the revolted tribes, and to destroy their grain supplies as much as possible. Small parties have been despatched daily from several posts to search the valley and ravines, and to hunt up Chins still lingering in the vicinity of the occupied villages. The results have been satisfactory and the tribes are being severely punished. It is difficult to estimate what their losses have been, because in all encounters with our troops the Chins have invariably been seen to carry off their wounded. On our side the losses have been extemely heavy, a total of 53 having been killed and wounded since the operations commenced. When I left Fort White General Palmer and Mr. Carey were very hopeful that both the Nwengals and the Siyins would shortly submit. Some guns had already been brought in from villages across the Nankate, and Dimlo, Pomvar and other Siyin villages were asking terms. I have every reason to hope, therefore, that full submission may shortly be expected, and I consider it a matter of congratulation that the revolt has been localised, and that the neighbouring tribes have not joined in it.“(Vum Ko Hau, pp. 453-454)______________
_
It is true that our instructions were to punitively visit the tribes, but that force is no remedy had been proved with the Siyins and the Kanhows, who have taken the severest punishment with courage and obstinacy that have excited our wonder and admiration...
_ Brigadier General W. Penn Symons, C.B. Commanding, Chin-Lushai Expeditionary Force–––––––––––––
7.5. THE HISTORY OF THE SOKTE TRIBE
7.5.1.
Origin of the Sokte
The Sokte, in common with all the Northern Chins, believed that their original progenitors commenced life at Chin Nwe[Ciim Nuai] and they affirm that their tribal name of Sokte bears out this theory. “Sok“ or “Shok“ means “to go down“ or “below“ and “te“ is the plural affix applied to persons, and the tribal name therefore Sokte, implying those who went south or below the parent village to settle. Molbem, which lies south of Chin Nwe, is, we know, the original capital of the Sokte tribe. The Soktes trace back their pedigree for six generations. Of the first two Chiefs, Mang Pyim and Mang Kim, tradition tells us but little. They are supposed to have fostered the little settlement at Molbem, which became a large and flourishing village in Mang Kim‘s time. Both these Chiefs are buried at Molbem.7.5.2.
Rise and Deeds of Kantum
_ “The first name of real note in the history of the Sokte is that of Mang Kim‘s son, Kantum[Khan Thuam]. As a young man, Kantum quarrelled with his father‘s people and lived in the south till Mang Kim‘s death. He then returned, accompanied by followers from the Tashon country, and placing himself at the head of the Sokte family proceeded to conquer the Northern Chin Hills. He carried his arms right up to the plains of Manipur; and all the tribes he met with on the way either paid him tribute without fighting, or paid him
ad
tribute after having defeated. The great work of his life was the conquest of the Northern Hills...The tribes conquered by Kantum were the Nwites[Guite], who then occupied the tract we now know as the Kanhow tract; the Yos, who are still found dotted about the Northern hills and in the hills south-east of Cachar; the Thados, who then, and still, inhabit the hills fringling the plains of Manipur and the Kabaw valley; and the Vaipeis[Vaipheis], a tribe which has entirely disappeared from the Chin Hills...We may, therefore, fix the approximate date of the Sokte conquest as 1840...Kantum died and was buried at Mobem[Mualbem]. He had six sons: the eldest was Kanhow and the youngest Yapow[Za Pau]. According to the tribal custom Yapow inherited his father‘s house at Mobem and the chieftainship of the tribe...Kanhow, however, had already founded a village called Tiddim in the midst of his father‘s conquests and although by right of custom he was subordinate to his younger brother, he nevertheless ruled his villages so absolutely that the Sokte tribe became known as two separate communities; those villages directly under Yapow adhering to the tribal name of Sokte, whilst those ruled by Kanhow took the name of Kanhowte or Kanhow‘s people, who are known to this day as the Kanhow clan of the Sokte tribe...At his father‘s death Kanhow at once adopted an aggressive policy, and although his father earned the title of “the conqueror,“ to Kanhow belongs the credit of consolidating the aliens into one tribe, whose name became fully terror to Manipur, Lushai, and Burma...In 1856 the Soktes committed a serious raid on a hill village in Manipur...Soktes and Siyins tell us that the Maharaja, who was carried in a palanquin, led his army right up to Tiddim, Kanhow allowing it to advance in peace. Kanhow meanwhile collected all his forces at Tiddim. Here Yapow joined him with the Soktes, and the Siyins under their Chiefs also came to Tiddim to fight the common enemy...“(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I. pp.118-126) 7.5.3.
Dealings With the Sokte and Occupation of Tiddim
_ Meanwhile the Sokte and Kanhows had tried to persuade the Political Officer that they had no Burman slaves and begged that we should neither demand their guns nor attack their villages. The negotiations fell through and on the 9th March[1890] General Faunce advanced into the Sokte country with a large force, accompanied by Major Raikes, to attack the tribe. The first objective was Wunkathe[Vangteh] and Saivan[Saizang]. After a very difficult march and in the face of determined opposition, Wunkathe, a village of 220 houses, was reached and found to have been fired by its inhabitants. It was completely destroyed together with large stores of grain
*.
From Wumkathe the column proceeded on the 10th March to Saiyan. Saiyan was occupied after an attempt at resistance, the inhabitants making their way with difficulty, and after incurring considerable loss, across Nankathe. After destroying Saiyan, the force marched on to Tiddim. The village was the home of Khocin[Khua Cin], at this time the Chief of the Kanhow clan; the Kanhows consequently fought well in the defence of their capital, wounding four sepoys and setting fire to the villagewhen they could no longer protect it. General Faunce names the enemy‘s losses at 25 killed and 45 to 50 wounded. After the fall of their capital the Kanhows made but poor resistance and their remaining villages on the left bank of the river[Manipur River] and south of Tiddim were destroyed, either by the troops or by the Chins themselves, with little trouble and loss.(Carey & Tuck, Vol. 1, pp. 29- 30)––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* As the British practised the tactic of burning down every village, which showed any sign of resistance, and taking away or destroying the domestic animals and grains anyway, the Chins themselves burned down several of their own villages and destroyed their grains before the British could do it. Author
ad
7.5.4.
The Siyin and Sokte Chiefs
*
in Rangoon_
“In April[ 1891] Myook[Township Officer] Maung Tun Win took down the Kanhow[Kamhau] Chiefs who had been captured at Tunzan[Tonzang], and four other Siyins(Kumlin, Ya Wun, Howsun and Kuplyin) to visit Rangoon[the seat of the British colonial administration] and Mandalay[the residence of the Burmese kings until the British conquest]. It was considered that the sight of our power and possessions would do much to convince the Chiefs of the futility of resisting us, and would also tend to overcome their mistrust of our sentiments towards them. Except that one Siyin died, the trip was a great success in every way, and the Chins returned well pleased with all that they had seen and the kind of treatment which they had experienced throughout their travels. On the 23rd June Captain Rose, having collected all the Soktes and Kanhows of importance, held a durbar at Fort White, when Howcinkhup and all the elders of the clan took oath of allegiance to the British Government and swore to abstain from raiding Burma. Howcinkhup and all the Kanhow prisoners were then released, and they amply repaid the Government for this act of clemency a year and a half later by staunchly standing aloof from the rebellion which was raised by their relations of the Nwengal tract in common with the Siyins.“(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, p.54)
Footnote # 2:
The Kanhows were Howcinkhup[Hau Cin Khup], Ninzathang[Neng Za Thang], and two women, and the Siyins were Kumlin[Khum Lian], Ya Wum[Za Vum], Howsun[Hau Suang], and Kuplyin[Khup Lian].
7.6. THE TASHON TRIBE
7.6.1.
Legendary Origin of the Tashons
_ The Thados, as has been remarked, claim their origin from the bowel of the earth, and the Tashons also believe that their original parents stepped, not out of a burrow like the Thados, but out of solid rock. At Shunkla there is a large rock and out of this the Tashons believe that a man and a woman came, who settling down close by became the parents of those who are now called the Shunkla tribe proper. The Tashons call themselves Shunkla after the name of the village which they believe their first parents started, building themselves the first house after emerging from the rock, and by this name they are known to all the southern tribes.7.6.2.
Rise of the Power of the Tashons
..
After the Shunklas(Tashon is the Burmese corruption of the word Shunkla) had founded Falam they gradually brought all their neighbours, both relations and aliens, under their control. When we occupied Chinland we found the Tashons numerically the most powerful in the hills... The Tashon tribesmen, unlike Siyins and Soktes, do not claim one common progenitor. They are a community composed of aliens, who have been collected under one family by conquest, or more correctly strategy. The
esprit de corps
in the tribe therefore falls far short of that displayed in the Siyin, Sokte and Thado tribes. The members of the Falam council are not looked up to as every man‘s hereditary and lawful lord, as is the case with Chiefs in thenorth. They are
parvenus
and aliens, who cannot expect to be treated with the respect which high birth––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* There had always been a very unique relationship between the Sizangs and the Sukte/Kamhau in ancient times. They were natural allies in times of war and peace. Although the Sukte/Kamhau expanded their territories even as far north as the Manipuri kingdom they remained allies of the Sizangs who lived in their immediate neighbourhood. The Sizangs were so fiersely independent-minded that they did not attempt to expand their influence to any other tribes, nor did they tolerate attempts by others to influence them either. AuthorNote. Altogether 49 Chiefs and their followers representing several tribes visited Rangoon in November 1893.(Carey & Tuck, Vol. 1. p.101)
ad
demands and secures in all Kuki tribes. The Tashon Chiefs themselves are well aware that their birth does not entitle them to the love and respect of their people. To maintain their position they keep their people constantly crushed under a yoke of taxation and fines, and should any village show signs of impatience or resistance it is promptly dealt with and crippled. The people of the Tashon tribe may be classed into five divisions - (1) The Shunkla(2) The Yahow[Zahau](3) The Tawyan(4) The Kweshin[Khualsim](5) The Whenoh[Hualngo]. These five divisions may be subdivided into - (1) Shunkla of Falam(2) Other Shunkla(3)The Yahow tribe proper(4) Other villages of Yahow origin (5) Kwungli[Khuangli](6) The Norn[Ngawn] family(7)The Kweshin and Minledaung community(8) Tawyan people(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, 141-43)7.6.3
Council of Chiefs
_ The Falam tribe is administered by a council of five Chiefs, who are all chosen from the Shunkla and Falam village. The post of councillor is attained, not by virtue of birth, but by the vote of the people. It is a most extraordinary circumstance to find a Kuki tribe disregarding birth, and appointing to rule them five men who may be of plebeian origin and who have attained affluence by successful trade, proved their wisdom in diplomacy, or fought their way to fame in raids and wars. Amongst the Chins, as among the Kukis, it is the male issue which commands respect and demands rights, but amongst the Shunklas a plebeian like Sonpek[Con Bik]
who is the greatest man in the tribe, can make himself Chief by right, through marrying into a family of Chiefs. Such a thing would not be possible amongst the Hakas and Soktes. The aristocratic family of the Shunklas is the “Kong Perr“[Cong Khar], to which the two old councilmen Karr Lyin[Khar Lian] and Man Hlorr[Mang Hlur] belong. The other three are men whose position in the tribes is due either to their own efforts or to distinction gained by their fathers.“( Carey & Tuck, Volume I, p. 149)7.6.4.
The Gathering of Chins at Falam
_ In the afternoon of 11th March[1889] General W. Penn Symons summoned the Falam Chiefs and read out the terms which had already been explained to them some three months previously by Major Raikes... The General dismissed the Chiefs with a solemn warning to carefully consider their final answer, which was to be given within two days. At this time the whole valley, in which formerly lay the original village of Falam, was full of armed Chins, numbering not less than 3,000 men, gathered from all sides ... Doubtless it was the presence of this large force drawn from so many tribes and from the very borders of the Lushai country that induced the Tashon Chiefs to show a bold front, fully believing that with our small force we should be alarmed at the display of the Chin strength. The Chiefs when they informed General Symons that they would not pay tribute were quite sincere and intended to fight rather than pay, though they preferred to gain their end without fighting if possible. It must be remembered that the Tashons held a unique position in Chinland at this time. All the tribes from Manipur to Haka and from Burma to Lushai owed them nominal allegiance and the Tashons, realized that their prestige would be gone and the name of Falam lowered in the eyes of Chinland if they in common with the petty clans had to pay tribute and acknowledge the supremacy of the white men. “(Carey & Tuck, Volume I. p. 39)7.6.5.
Decadence of the Tashon Power
_ The Falam council recognizes that the tribal position is in a most critical state at the present time. They not only failed to keep us out of the Siyin country in 1889, but they also met with no success when they tried
ad
to prevent our visiting Falam in 1890 and again, two years later, when we placed a post at their village. Their position then became still more unstable. They had approved the Siyin-Nwengal rebellion, although they did not openly assist the rebels, and when we had finished dealing with the Northerners, we disarmed some Whenoh and Yahow tribesmen as well as some Norns subordinate to the Kwungli and tributary to Falam. The people thus saw what we already suspected, namely, that Falam was afraid to fight us for the guns of their subordinates. This year has seen the partial disarmament of the south, and now that the northern and southern tribes are disarmed, the Tashons recognize that their turn comes next, and they are very awkwardly placed. If they surrender their guns, their power will be diminished and their prestige lowered; if, on the other hand, they fight, they are certain to be beaten, their fine capital will be at the mercy of the troops and Government as a punishment may split up the present Tashon possessions into two or three independent chieftainships, Falam retaining the Shunklas, Kweshins, Torrs, while the Yahows and Whenohs would be independent of the Tashons and directly subordinate to the Assistant Political Officer at Falam.(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, p. 151)7.6.6.
Renewal of Negotiations with the Tashons
After punishing the Kanhows[in March, 1890], the troops returned to Fort White and Major Raikes opened up negotiations with the Tashons, which at first promised well, for Boimon, a Falam Chief of standing, came to the Nattan[Ngatan] stream to interview him. The result, however, was disappointing, as the Tashons refused to surrender Shwe Gyo Pyu and his associates, and they were not in a position to enforce the surrender of the Burman captives held by the Siyins and Kanhows
,
as Major Raikes then considered them able to. The season was now too far advanced to think of crossing the Manipur river, and so the expedition to the Tashon capital had to be postponed for the year.(Carey & Tuck, Vol. 1, p. 30)7.6.7.
Occupation of Falam _
Marching from Haka on the 10th March[1892] the column was met on the 12th by a deputation of Falam Chiefs and arrived on the 13th at our old camp near Falam, where we were met by more Chiefs. The Falam Chiefs were now told for the first time that we intended to occupy their village. They strongly objected, having hoped that we would camp where we were as we had done the two previous years. However, we had not come out to bandy words with them, and so, keeping the principle Chiefs as a safeguard, the troops advanced with all military precautions, it being impossible to see the villages until quite close to it. No resistance was offered and the village was peacefully occupied.(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, p. 65)
8.0 THE ARMS OF THE CHINS AND THE LOCAL MANUFACTUR OF GUNPOWDER AND BULLETS
(Carey & Tuck, Vol. I, pp. 220-227): Sixty years ago the weapons of the Chins were bows and arrows, spears and short das(swords). The warrior also carried a raw hide shield, which was capable of resisting the force of these primimitive weapons. At this period guns began to find their way into the country, at first chiefly through Burma and later on the majority through the Lushai Hills until the annexation of Upper Burma and disarming of the border districts, which forced a large number of guns into the hills, for the Burmans preferred to sell their guns for a trifle to the Chins to giving them up for nothing to the British.
ad
8.1.
Spears
Spears are universally used as a weapon of war; they are usually 5 feet long, shod at the butt with a long foursided spike and at the other end with spear head, which is sharpened at the sides as well as at the point; the weapon is very heavy as one-half and often two-thirds of its length is iron and the wooden shank is merely used to connect the sharp pointed butt with the razor-edged spear-head. Spear-heads vary considerably in form, according to whim. The handsomest shapes are found amongst the southerners, whilst the very broad-bladed spear-heads is a curiosity found only amongst the Whenohs and Yahows. It is not the custom, as amongst the Nagas, to decorate spears with human hair or with any ornamentation; occassionally a spear is noticed with a fringe of goat‘s hair dyed red fastened below the head. 8.2.
Bows and Arrows
Bows and arrows are still used for shooting games, but not as weapons of war. The bow is from 2.5 to 4 feet long, is made of bamboo, and the bow string is also made of bamboo; the arrow is 1 foot to 18 inches in length, iron-barbed and feathered. The arrow is usually discharged from the chest and apparently with no great force, but it is astonishing how hard the iron-shod arrow hits, for we have seen an arrow flicked from the bow, drawn only to the chest, penetrate an ince of board. The people speak of poisoned arrows, andit is blood poisoning which they allude to and not to a vegetable poison. The arrows are said to be stuck into a putrefying carcass before use, and the wounds then inflicted by them are fatal and caused by blood-poisoning. Putrefying kidneys are considered the best portion of the carcass for poisoning arrows. Arrows are not now poisoned as they are only used as a weapon of the chase.8.3.
Shields
The shield is merely a reminisecence of a by-gone day. A few shields may still be found in almost every village, and they are brought out and carried by dancers at feasts. The shield made out of the hide of the mithun is some 2.5 feet by 1.5 feet broad; in the centre is a boss projecting outwards, and inside the cavity are two cane handles which the hand grasps. The shields are very tough and effectually stop arrows, though these do penetrate sometimes as much as six inches. Often these shields are adorned with two or more rows of brass discs and tassels of goat‘s hair dyed red.8.4.
Surrendered Guns
*
Over 4,000 guns have been withdrawn from the Chins since our occupation, the great majority havingbeen surrendered during 1893 and the two following seasons. That guns have come into the country from both east and west is demonstrated by the fact that weapons with the names of Burmans in Burmesecharacters and the names of Indian sepoys in the Persian character have been found stamped on the heel-plates of muskets...The Chin hates weight in a gun and therefore he invariably discards the stockof western manufacture and carvess out one one his own pattern and peculiar to him. This custom is universal throughout the the hills, but the workmanship of the Siyins and Soktes is infinitely superior to that of the southerners; their stock is lighter in weight and more slender and graceful in form than those heavy and––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
*
In total the British collected more than ten thousand guns from the entire Chinland at the end of Anglo-Chin war.
ad
more clumsily hewn stocks of the south, and, although new-comer to the hills would not detect any difference, an old resident can tell by a captured gun whether a band of raiders were northerners or southerners...The vanishing of the guns with black tree oil is a curious custom; it gives the gun a very smart appearance; but his gun is the most prized possession of the Chin and nothing is too much trouble if it can decorate or improve his treasure...Wunkathe in the Northern Chin Hills was noted for its beautiful guns, and when that village was disarmed, we found that the reputation was fully deserved, for the barrels were as bright as silver, the gun-stocks were beautifully shaped, and the paint, brass-work, and all other appointments were perfect. 8.5.
Chin Method of Making Gunpowder
One has read in reports and gazetteers that the Chins manufacture locally a weak powder, but after some years‘ experience we are in position to assert that the powder, although slow in igniting, is particularly powerful. We have seen men shot at a distance of 200, 300, and 400 yards, and, when one takes into consideration that the bullet is a light one and circular, and the barrel is smooth-bored, one has a very high respect for the local gunpowder. Those of us who fought the Siyins in 1888-89 and again in 1892-93 need no assurance that the Chin powder is good. The Pimpis made it unpleasant for us at 400 yards, and at the passage of the Manipur river the Chins dropped bullets among us at still greater range.
The manufacture of powder is effected in the following manner, which perhaps is the nost curious and extraordi-nary of all Chin customs. Where, when, and how they learnt the secret is a matter worthy of a very deep thought; perhaps it came from the Chinese through the Burmans. As described in a former chapter, the Chin house is so built that the pig-pen may be beneath the house and the household latrine immediately above the pen. The sides of the pig-pen are banked up so that no rain may fall or flow into it and spoil or wash away the thick crust of exrement. The nitrates obtained from this are used for making gunpowder... The next question arises is where the sulphur comes from, as powder must have sulphur as an ingredient. Although a sulphur spring has been found in the hills, the Chins do not directly look to the earth for their sulphur, and before our occupation of their tract they imported large quantities from Upper Burma. Now this import is stopped, but it does not prevent the manufacture of powder, for to begin with, it must be remembered that in faeces there is a certain quantity of sulphur, but a larger quantity is found in the
aunglauk
bean, which when burnt gives the charcoal which is used to mix with nitrate. This bean is known as “aunglauk“ by the Burmans and to the Chins as nattang[ngatam] in the north and is spoken of as “Ga“ by Colonel Mc Cullock in 1859, but we know no English name for it.
(Note
: The
Aunglauk
bean is called in modern term “
sulphur bean
“. Author)8.6.
Projectiles
The projectiles of the Chin gun varies in composition, size and quantity. Lead of course is the favourite metal, but it is fortunately scarce and the Chin has had to turn to brass, bell-metal, iron, round stones, and even clay pellets. The leaden balls are cast in moulds which are made as follows. First of all bees-wax balls of the size of the bullets required are rolled and are strung on a slim strip of bamboo, which is run through the centre of each ball, a quarter of an inch dividing each; the balls are then smeared with a composition of wet clay and paddy husks and placed in the sun to harden; the bamboo skewer is withdrawn and the mould heated over fire until the wax runs through the passage made by the withdrawal of the skewer. Molten lead is poured into the mould, which is then broken, and the leaden bullets are found the exact size and shape of the original balls of bee-wax and all connected by a leaden neck, the circumference of which the is the same
ad
as that of the bamboo skewer originally used... The clay pellets are far more dangerous than one would suppose; they are made of very fine and pure clay, which is taken from the beds of certain streams and which is thoroughly kneaded and cleansed of all impurities; it is then fashioned into balls which are baked as hard as stone. The Chin says that this clay ball will penetrate the stomach at close quarters and he chiefly relies on his ambushes at close quarters. If it strikes a bone, the clay ball will break up and fill the wound with mud and often cause death from putrefaction...Chins are known to have used an iron arrow with a barp, which protrudes from the muzzle, to shoot elephants.
9.0 RAIDS AND METHODS OF WARFARE
(Carey & Tuck, Vol. 1, pp. 227-236)_ The word “Shim“ of the Northern Chin dialect means both to fight and to raid. The whole system of warfare is what we call raiding, and the only tactics resorted to are those devoted to surprising the enemy. The Chins, Lushais, and Kukis are noted for the secrecy of their plans, the suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed of retreating to their fastnesses. The most striking characteristic of the Chin-Lushai raid is the extraordinary distances which the raiders cover to reach the scene of operation. After committing a raid they have been known to march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a meal or sleeping so as to escape from any rescue parties which might follow them.9.1.
Characteristics of Chin Warfare
The Chin will not risk his life more than he can possibly help. Although we have all admired the Siyins at various times who have carried off their wounded comrades in the most plucky manner, and who have crept into camp singly or in pairs and stolen and killed in our very midst, yet as a race Chins are not courageous.
*
Their tactics are the best that can be devised to suit their numbers, their weapons, and their country. We cannot blame the Chin for not meeting us in the open; he is armed with flint-lock and we with quick-firing weapons of precision. We cannot expect the Siyins, who have but some 750 men all told, to run risks. On account of the smallness of their numbers they do not fight in large but in small parties. If they see the chance of killing three of us, but believe that they must lose one man in so doing, they will not attempt it, but will wait until they can kill a man without running the slightest risk of losing one of themselves.9.2.
Outbreak of the Siyin Rebellion
The Siyin-Nwengal rebellion broke out with truly Kuki suddenness
**
and we were taken by surprise. Although the outbreak resulted in a moral victory, it was, as has been shown in a previous chapter, a heavy blow...Troops were quickly hastened to the hills, and the plan of campaign was first to smash all combined opposition, then break up the columns into several small parties which were placed at many points of _______________________________________
* I personally do not really understand what this remark should mean: How a primitive people with just a few thousand flint-lock guns and small population could show their courage against an enemy who numbered thousands of well-trained, well-organized and well-armed with the most modern weapons. Besides, entire villages were destroyed and livestock and grains either taken away or destroyed by their enemy. Author** Some 20,000 of Mizo National Volunteers(MNV), the military wing of the Mizo National Front which led the Mizo armed struggle against the Indian Government for 20 years, attacked and captured all the police and Assam Rifles garrisons throughout Mizoram at the zero hour - one o‘clock March 1, 1966. The plans and preparations were carried out in utmost secrecy that the whole India was caught by surprise. On March 2, Mizoram became the centre of world attention as major news media flashed news of the uprising. The Indian government declared Mizoram as a disturbed area and ordered its army to enter it.
ad
vantage in the hills. Large columns then set out and destroyed all th
e rebel vill
ages and drove the rebels into scattered settlements in the jungle and nullahs.9.3.
Prevention of Cultivation and Destructiobn of Food-Supply
In case of trouble in the Chin Hills a rule which we have adopted in the past is suggested to future Political Officers and Officers Commanding. It is to place yourself in position to ambush instead of being ambushed and attend more to the destruction of grain and to the prevention of all cultivation than to the pursuing of Chins. The weakest point of the Chin is his food-supply.9.4.
Gateways Not to be Attacked
When attacking a village officers should remember that the paths lead to the village gates and that the Chin village gateways are always the most strongly fortified of all the defences of the village; therefore it should be a rule, unless guns accompany the party, to effect an entrance at any point except by the gateway. In no circumstances should troops enter villages by the sunken paths and underground tunnels which are the regular entrances into many villages, especially in the Yahow[Zahau] country and the independent south. In conclusion, the Chin has so far proved himself a dangerous enemy when taking the offensive, but when acting on the defensive he quickly loses heart and the real way to defeat him is to ambush him and stop all cultivation.
10.0 SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT CHIN/ZO SOCIETIES
10.1.
Introduction
Hereditary chieftainship was common in central, northern and western regions of Chinland with the exception of the Tashon area in the central region as were already mentioned earlier. A number of those chiefs ruled over several villages stretching over vast areas and many of them had both political, military and judiciary powers over their subjects. And although some chiefs may have had ruled just a few villages, their influence could reach far beyond their own jurisdiction. Here is an example. “The Siyin Chiefs and for that matter all the Chin Chiefs were never under foreign sovereignty and they all wielded the powers of kings and monarchs from time immemorial. They waged war any time they chose and kept any number of slaves in their own house or in other distant villages collecting feudal levies as the occasion demanded.These feudal allies or in a few cases slaves were acquired in various ways. Feudal allies were acquired in times when strangers requested for food or clothings from the richer feudal lords in times of war, defeated or oppressed persons came to the stronger lords for protection and alliance; the third category consisted of slaves who were actually prisoners of war but who were never redeemed...“(Vum Ko Hau, pp. 178-179) The following passages will reveal more about how the Chins were ruled in olden days.
10.2.
The Position of Chiefs
(Carey & Tuck, Vol. 1, pp. 200- 203)
ad
10.2.1.
The Kuki, Siyin and Sokte Chiefs
_ The Kuki race is characterized by its respect for birth, and, as the Chin are but a family of that race, we find in them a natural reverence for him who by right of birth is Chief of the tribe, or clan, or family. The Chief may be wanting in qualifications and there may be many of other families his superior in ability; but, unless he is physically or mentally quite unfit for his position, there is no danger of his being supplanted, and the usual course is for elders and advisers to assist him in his rule. The position of the Chin Chief in regard to the people is very similar to that of a feudal Baron. The Chief is lord of the soil and his freemen hold it as his tenants and pay him tithes, whilst they in common with the slaves are bound to carry arms against all his enemies. If a fugitive or an outcast takes refuge in a village, he pledges himself as vassal or slave of his protector. We found that the Siyin and Sokte Chiefs in particular were in a familiar position to the Barons of old who ruled their tenants and were subordinate, both they and their tenants, to the King. The Sokte Chiefs ruled their tenants, received their tithes, and fought their own private quarrels, and at the same time they paid tax to the Tashons and obeyed their summons to collect their forces to fight in the Tashon interests. 10.2.2.
Haka and Southern Chiefs
_ At Haka and in the south an intricate state of affairs exists, for the Chiefs of several clans, presumably for the sake of strengthening their position and controlling powerful dependents, in times gone by founded the village of Haka and peopled it with their several families and immediate followings. The position of the Haka and other Southern Chiefs in common with that of the Northern Chiefs is that of hereditary and lawful rulers, but as already shown in previous chapter, the Tashon custom is different. In the Northern Hills a Chief, when he becomes too old to lead the clan on raids, naturally leaves these arduous duties to his sons, but he does not abdicate in his son‘s favour, and he continues to the end as the head of the clan. It is a custom for no man in the north to eat the liver of any animal whilst his father is alive as it is deemed disrespectful to do so. Amongst the Hakas the very marked respect of age, which is so noticeable in the north, is entirely wanting.10.2.3.
Falam Chiefs
_ The Falam Chiefs pretend that all on the council are hereditary Chiefs; such, however, is not the case, though it is possible for a man of common extract to become connected with the hereditary Chiefs by marriage; and this is how the Tashons promote a commonder to the rank of Chief. The Chiefs are elected to the council by the people, but as a general rule they belong to the old families, and only when a common man is particularly conspicuous as a soldier, a diplomatist, or as a rich merchant, is he promoted to the council. The Tashons say that a man must have slain another before he can attain to the council. If this is the fact, there must have been many cold-blooded murders committed as the Tashons are not warriors“.
10.3. Other Forms of Rulership
Among the other tribes in southern parts of Chinland, which were called by the British as the status of rulership was determined by merits - that is, people elected their leaders every three years or more depending on the duration of the shifting cultivation practiced in the area. The candidate should either be wealthy (having abundant surplus of harvest, for instance), or a victorious warrior or a highly skilled
ad
hunter. In a way it was a democratic headman system. And every tribe had had its own customary law - or some tribes may share some or a large part of their customary laws- and they were ruled according to these laws. Many chiefs in fact were just executing the customary laws that were practiced by their specific tribes with the help of village or community elders. Several of these customary laws were still in use until very recently in nearly the entire Chin State with the exception in matters of capital offenses. The first compilation of the Chins‘ customary law was done by a Burman named Maung Thet Pyo, Assistant Commissioner of Myde, under the title of
The Customary Law of the Chin Tribe,
1884
.
It was translated into English by Maung Shwe Eik, Myook[Township Officer], Assistant Government Translator, British Burma, with General remarks by Dr. E. Farchhammer, Professor of Pali and Government Archeologist, British Burma.(Source:
Chin Chronicles
, compiled and edited by Rev. Khup Za Go, First Edition 1988; Churachachanpur - 795128, Manipur, India )
11.0 AWAKENING OF POLITICAL AND NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS
11.1.
Introduction
Soon after World War I the Chin-Kuki-Mizo gradually began to develop political and national consciousness. They began to realize that they were belonging to a single ethnic entity and that their common destiny was closely intertwined. The first known political and national movement among them took place in the then Southern Chin Hills under the leadership of a young nationalist named Vomthu Moung(also often spelled as Vumthu Maung) with the formation of a political organization named “Chin Hills Union Organization“(CHUO) on the 20th February 1928. The CHUO submitted in 1934 a 9-point memorandum to the British government. The first political negotiations between the British and the CHUO took place on February 20, 1938. However, instead of granting the demands of the Chins, 79 Chin leaders were thrown into jail. They were freed by the Japanese some years later. Then some of the most outstanding political movements took place among the Zo people inside present-day India under the banner of the Mizo Union with its submission of a memorandum known as the MIZO MEMORANDUM to the British Government in 1947, and the submission of the Paite National Council‘s Memorandum to the Indian Government in 1960. There were and are several groups and individuals among the Zos on both sides of the international boundary who aspire to unify all the Zo tribes under a single administration and with a single nomenclature.(The drive for reunification with the Zo people inside Bangladesh is still somewhat neglected until now. Author) The following are the most important historical papers that document the affairs of the Chin/Zo people from the time of British colonial rule up to the present. Actually, the British wanted to put the two Zo territories - Chin Hills and Lushai Hills - under a single administrative head at the Chin-Lushei Conference of 1892. However, the implementation of this idea was never realized for reasons that no-one outside the British inner circles knows, although there were many speculations.(For more information on this particular subject see 12.10.2. TOWARDS ZO UNIFICATION by Pu L. Keivom.) In accordance with the resolution reached at this conference Mr. B.S.Carey, the Political Officer of the Chin Hills, drafted the Chin Hills Regulation, which was approved by the British Government and officially promulgated on August 13, 1896. The Chin Hills Regulation was still in use long after Burma‘s independence.
ad
11.2.
CHIN-LUSHAI CONFERENCE
Fort William, the 29th January 1892At the final meeting of the Chin-Lushai Conference held at Fort William, on 29th January 1892.PRESENT:The Hon‘ble Sir Charles Alfred Elliot, K.C.S.I., Lt. Governor General of BengalHis Excellency Lieutenant- General the Hon‘ble Sir. J. C. Dormer, K.C.B., Commander-in-Chief, Madras.Sir Alexander Mackenzie, K.C.S.I., Chief Commissioner of Burma.W.E. Ward Esq., C.S.I., Chief Commissioner of AssamSir Henry Mortimer Durand, K.C.I.K., C.S.I., Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign DepartmentMajor General E.H.H. Collin, C.I.E., Secretary to the Government of India, Military DepartmentMajor-General Sir James Browne, KCSI. C.B., R.E., Quarters-Master-General in IndiaThe following resolutions were passed: -1. The majority of the Conference are of the opinion that it is desirable that the whole tract of the country known as the Chin-Lushai Hills should be brought under one administrative head as soon as this can be done. They also consider it advisable that the new Administration should be subordinated to the Chief Commissioner of Assam. Sir J. Dormer and Sir Alexander Mackenzie would defer any final decision as regards the eastern part of the tract till further information is obtained.2. The Conference is not prepared to assert that this can be taken immediately. As matters stand now, the difficulties of communication, of supplies, and of transport are very serious, and it will in any case be necessary to suspend action until after the close of the present cold season‘s operations in the Chin and Lushai Hills.3. The first thing to be done for the control of this tract is to improve the communication between the important places such as Cachar and Aijal[Aizawl]. Aijal and Lungleh, Aijal and Manipur, and the posts situated respectively on the eastern and western side of the tract. The opening out of this line is a work of pressing importance. The necessary commisariat staff should also be provided to arrange for transport and supplies, till the track is able to provide them for itself.4. The Conference is of the opinion that the boundaries of the new administrative area should be, generally speaking, the boundaries of the tract occupied by the savages newly brought under British control, but the details of those boundaries can only be settled after consultation with local officers.5. The Conference is agreed that North and South Lushai, with such portions of the Arakhan Hill Tracts may hereafter be determined, should be placed under Assam at once on the condition that-a. Complete transport and commissariat equipment for supplies from Chittagong to South Lushai, and from Cachar to North Lushai, are provided;b. Funds are granted for road and telegraph from Aijal to Lungleh.-------{Signed} C.A. ELLIOTT{Signed} J.C. DORMER, Lieut. Gen.{Signed} A.MACKENZIE{Signed} W.E.WARD{Signed} H.M. DURRAND
ad
{Signed} E.H.H. COLLEN{Signed} JAMES BROWNE, Maj. Gen. (Source:“Foreign Department Report on Chin-Lushai Hills,“ September 1892(reprinted 1980/No.3)–––––––––––––
11.3. MEMORANDUM SUBMITTED TO HIS MAJESTY’S GOVERNMENT, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA AND ITS CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY THROUGH THE ADVISORY SUB-COMMITTEE BY THE MIZO UNIONMIZO MEMORANDUM
Memorandum of the case of the Mizo people for the right of territorial unity and solidarity and self-determination within the province of Assam in free India submitted to His Majesty’s Government and the Government of India and its constituent Assembly through the Advisory Sub-Committee for Assam and fully excluded areas and partially excluded areas. Pursuant to the resolution passed by the General Assembly of the Mizo Union at Aijal in September 1946 subsequently supported by the Mizo Conference at Lakhipur (Cachar) in November 1946 this memorandum prepared by the Mizo Union and supported by the Mizos outside the Lushai Hills –Manipur State, Cachar, Tripura and the Chittagong Hill Tracts, etc. The memorandum seeks to represent the case of Mizo people for territorial unity and integrity of the whole Mizo population and full self-determination within the province of Assam for the realization of which an appeal is made to His Majesty’s Government, the Government of India and its constituent Assembly to make a special financial provision from year to year for a period of ten years or until such time as the Mizos shall assert that they can maintain their self determination without this financial provision.11.3.1. THE PEOPLE AND THE LANDThe Mizos are a numerous family of tribes, closely knitted together by common tradition, custom, culture, mode of living, language and rites. They are spread over a wider area extending far beyond Manipur State, Cachar, Tripura State, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Burma contiguous with the boundaries of the present Lushai-Hills District which was carved out arbitrarily for administrative purpose. The Mizo people have been known under different names. They were wrongly identified as Kukis during the time of Lord Warren Hastings when Administrator of Chittagong sought help of the British against the Kuki raiders, and it continued to be applied to the whole group until 1871 when it was supplanted by the term Lushai as a result of the active and prominent part taken by the Lushai, sub-tribe of Mizo race, against the British Expedition known as the First Lushai Expedition. The present Lushai-Hills District was thus curved out of the Mizoland for administrative convenience and the Mizo people living within the District came to be known as Lushais while the other Mizos left out of the Lushai Hills District and annexed to the surrounding Districts, continued to be known as Kuki without their consent. However, the solidarity of the Mizo people as a race and a distinct block is testified by the name of places, mountains, and ranges of the Lushai Hills, Cachar, Manipur, Tripura, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Burma, known and called after the names of them. Shakespeare, Stevenson, Liangkhaia, Shaw, Kingdonward and Kim of the Statesman are some of the authorities on this. The Mizos have nothing in common with the plains nor with the Naga or Manipuri, etc. They are distinct block. The areas now under their occupation are mostly hilly except the eastern portion of Cachar district
ad
extending to the Barial range in the North Cachar Hills. Wherever they go and wherever they are, they carry with them their primitive customs, cultures and mode of living in its purest origin, always calling and identifying themselves as Mizo.The nomenclature of the word ‘KUKI’was and is known to the Mizos; it was a name merely given to them by the neighbouring foreigners.Again, it was wrong that the word Lushai should be used as covering all the Mizo tribes since it is misrending of the Lusei, only sub-tribe of the Mizo race. Hence though perhaps, not originally intended, it has created a division. Only the word ‘Mizo’ stand for the whole group of them all : Lusei, Hmar, Ralte, Paite, Zo, Darlawng, Kawm, Pawi, Thado, Chiru, Aimol, Khawl, Tarau, Anal, Puram, Tikhup, Vaiphei, Lakher, Langrawng, Chawrai; Bawng, Baite, Mualthuam, Kaihpen, Pangkhua, Tlangau, Hrangkhawl, Bawmzo, Miria, Dawn, Kumi, Khiangte, Khiang, Pangte, Khawlhring, Chawngthu, Vanchiau, Chawhte, Ngente, Renthlei, Hnamte, Tlau, Pautu, Pawite, Vangchhia, Zawngte, Fanai, etc, all closely related to one another culturally, socially, economically and physically thus forming a distinct ethnical units.11.3.2. TRADITIONAL ORIGINTraditionally Mizos claim descent from Sinlung, a mythical rock north of the Shan state. Migration by tribal group seems to have taken place about the beginning of the 5th century, halting at several locations from longer or lesser periods through the Shan state, Chindwin Valley and Chin Hills until they finally came to settle in their present occupied areas and the villages claimed by the various Mizo tribes, wherever their present habitat may be, as their original homes are within or close to the border of the present Falam Sub-Division.11.3.3. THE MIZO POPULATION[A] The Mizo people in the Lushai Hills alone number 1,46,900 with an area of 8,143 square milesaccording to the census of 1941.[B] The Mizo population of Manipur State contiguous to the Lushai Hills again comes to about 70,000 with an area of about 3,500 square miles.[C] The Mizo in the Cachar District contiguous to the Lushai Hills, the Mizo again number approximately 9,000 with an area of about 300 square miles.[D] In Tripura state contiguous to the Lushai Hills, the Mizo again number approximately 7,000 with an area of about 250 square miles.[E] In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, contiguous to the Lushai Hills, the Mizo population is generally approximated to be about 15,000 with an area of about 3,000 square miles.[F] In the Chin Hills (Burma) also contiguous to the Lushai Hills who are now commonly known and termed as the Chins, number not less than 90,000 with an area of about 3,800 square miles occupied by them.
ad
The total Mizo population of the contiguous area alone thus comes roughly 3,38,400 and the areas about 18,993 square miles. It is a great injustice that the Mizos having one and the same culture, speaking one and the same language, professing one and the same religion, and knit together by common customs and traditions should have been called and known by different names and thrown among different people with their homeland sliced out and given to others. The whole contiguous area of the Mizo population as detailed above occupies the middle and the most important portion of India’s Eastern Frontiers. It is, therefore, the more imperative that His Majesty’s Government, the Government of India and its constituent Assembly should do the just and proper thing and grant the Mizos their just demand for TERRITORIAL UNITY AND SOLIDARITY.11.3.4. MIZO HISTORY AND BRITISH CONNECTIONThe Mizo people were independent, each village forming an independent unity, and their country was never subjugated by the Maharajas of Manipur, Tripura and Chittagong nor by the Kacharis. However, there had been frontier clashes between the Mizos and the neighbouring people which ultimately brought the British to the scene in 1871. The Mizo country was subsequently annexed to the British territory in 1890, when a little less than half of the country was carved out for the Mizo people and named Lushai Hills while the rest have been parcelled out of the adjoining districts. Since the Mizos have remained loyal, friendly and peaceful. At all time, whenever the British needed help as World War I, Abhor Expedition., Houkip Rebellion, and World War II, the willing services of the Mizo people were readily available. The Mizos have an efficient system of administration and discipline. Being a distinct block they retain to a considerable degree their ancient and traditional laws, and customs and organizations, beginning from village under the guidance of the Chief and the Elders, while young and old have their respective leaders in all walks of life. Except in Cachar, the Mizo people are excluded from the Government of India’s Act and the areas inhabited by them are kept as a special responsibility of the Governor of the province in his capacity as the Crown Representative and the Legislature have no influence whatsoever. In other words, the Mizos have never been under the Indian Government and never had any connection with the policies and politics of the various groups of Indian opinion. Now that the British are quitting these Mizos who have never been under the Indian government and whose ways are all different from others, cannot be thrown on a common platform with the rest of India. It is therefore, important to the highest degree that the Mizos be given self-determination in its fullest form.11.3.5. THE PRESENT GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRYAs stated in the foregoing paragraphs, the Mizo areas are mostly excluded. The political officer is supreme in every respect. The Education is mostly carried on by the Christian Missionary groups. The general communication of the country is extremely poor. The land is extremely hilly without good roads; and the people poor and simple, primitive and divided into tribes and clans. The highest education is mostly derived from outside the district; but in mass literacy the Mizo people is highest in Assam. The people are mostly intelligent and as such given equal terms they always outshine their fellow-workers of other community in the fields at home. They are born strategist. Their greatest short-coming is lack of finance as a result of their
ad
trade and commerce and limited scope open for them. Their areas stretch from north to south parallel with the Burma border line for defence along the eastern border of India. This being the background, it is all the more imperative that the Mizoram be given special financial provision by the Central from year to year while allowing them their territorial integrity as anything short of this will be detrimental to their upbringing. In other words, the Centre shall grant financial provision from year to year for the purpose of development of the country while the district shall join autonomous Assam through legislature with adequate representation and be also eligible to the provincial service with due reservations at the same time retaining their territorial integrity and self-determination : as otherwise thrown among forty crores of Indians the 3,38,400 Mizos with their unique systems of life will be wiped out of existence.11.3.6. OUR CASEIn the light of the facts stated in the foregoing paragraphs and in view of geographical position and the strategical importance of the Mizoram for the defence of India and taking into consideration the unique characteristics of Mizo polity and compact block of Mizoland – this Memorandum is placed with the authority for –[1] Territorial unity and solidarity of; the whole Mizo population to be known henceforth as Mizo and Mizoram for Lushai and Lushai Hills District, retaining the sole proprietary right over the land.[2] Full self-determination with the province of Assam: [A] With the National Council having the supreme legislative authority and executive body and judiciary within the district the composition and function of which will be prescribed by rules. [B] Any concurrent subjects in which the district may be connected with the autonomous province of Assam or India as a whole shall be by negotiation with the national councils which will be set up; according to wishes of the general public, any legislation may be applied to the district only with sanction of the national council with any modification. [C] Special financial provision by the Centre from year to year until such time as the Mizos shall assert that they are able to maintain their territorial integrity and self-determination without this financial provision.ALL ABOVE ITEMS SHALL BE SUBJECT TO REVISION ACCORDING TO THE FUTURE TREND OF EVENTS TO THE EXTENT OF SECEEDING AFTER TEN YEARS.For this end it is to be understood that the democratic system of Government in its purest form shall at the very outset be introduced. Passed and approved by the Mizo Union representatives conferences at Aijal, Lushai Hills, Assam on 22nd April, 1947.26-4-1947Sd/- KHAWTINKHUMAPresident
ad
Sd/- VANTHUAMAGeneral SecretaryThe Mizo Union, Aijal,Lushai Hills,ASSAM(Source: True Copy/Zogam.Online) ___________________________________
11.4. MEMORANDUMSubmitted by the Paite National Council
for Re-unification of the Zomis of India, Burma and Pakistan under one CountryTo,The Prime Minister,Government of India,New DelhiSubmitted by the Paite National Council to the Prime Minister of India for the Re-unification of Zomis of India and Burma under one country. We, the undersigned, in continuation of the resolutions passed at the Annual General Assembly of the Paite National Council held at Hanship village from the 10th to 13th October, 1957 and at Mualnuam village from the 6th to 8th February,1960 and the Memorandum submitted thereof, have the honour to submit this Memorandum of ours again in pursuance of the resolution passed at the General Meeting of the Paite National Council held at Hiangtam Lamka village from the 27th to 29th May,1960 with a request that Government of India, with good-will and under standing, will take initiative as to group all Chin people inhabiting the Indo Burma border areas within one country as specified and justified herein for the safe-guard of their economic, social, political rights, etc.11.4.1. [1] RE-UNIFICATION OF THE CHIN PEOPLE INTO ONE TERRITORY The name “Chin”: The word “Chin” is supposed by some Authorities to be a corruption of Chinese word “Jen” or “Man”. It is related to names such as Chingpa, China, Shan, Siam etc. Many leaders have always attempted to interpret the word Chin as analogous to Kuki. there has been no difference of opinion that there are some, of course, Kuki stock of people. But there is a gulf of arbitrary difference between Chins and Kukis in the sense of grading or grouping system. The identity of the Chins can be best verified in the Linguistic Survey of India, Volume III, Part III by G.A. Grierson, I.C.S.; Ph.D; D. Litt; C.I.E. because the Author who collected the Data, Specimen and Records by referring to 30 Authorities, was an authorized one by the British Indian Government. Thus, according to this Book, under Chin, as a genius, come all the Kuki tribes and other various tribes; whereas Kuki as a species is a sub-group of Chin or in other words, Kuki is another grouping system excluding some tribes under Chin. Hence Chin is a wider denotation and Kuki a narrower denotation.
ad
11.4.2. [2] THE ORIGIN OF THE CHINS The Chins are believed to be of Chinese origin as supported by Bamboo-reed musical instrument and others. The traditional memory claimed their remote original place as a Cave in China where, for fear of enemies, they hid themselves; which is interpreted in different dialects as Sinlung in Hmar and Khul in Paite and other languages. Thus in view of the tradition and history, the Khul Union as assigned to the place of their origin was once constituted as a political reconciliation by some leaders in Manipur. Nothing of their sojourn is known beyond this cave-period till they settled in Burma. But there is a traditional belief that during their sojourn some of them migrated to Siam and some through the Northern Hilly Tracts of Burma. However, the fact is that the Chins are Tibeto-Burmese origin as also manifested in the Linguistic Survey of India. The fact of their relation with Tibetans is revealed amongst others by some common dialects of which mention may be made of ‘Five’ and ‘three’ which are pronounced as ‘Nga’ and ‘Thum’ respectively in both Tibetan and Chin dialects. Then within the memory of man, some of them migrated through the Chin Hills and settled in the Manipur Hills, Mizo District, Tripura Hills, Chittagong Hill Tracts and North Cachar Hills; and this is still proved by the names of villages which the Chins carried from place to place during the period of their sojourn.11.4.3. [3] THE PEOPLES OF CHIN In this respect also, the Linguistic Survey of India is the most reliable source of information which easily and apparently revealed who the Chin are, from the view point of Anthropology. The word “Chin” is synonymous and is used to denote the various hill tribes of Burma, Manipur, Mizo District, Tripura, North Cachar Hills in India and of the Arakan and Chittagong Hill Tracts of Pakistan. Even Manipur language is said to have originated from the Chin stock as Meitei-Chin. Attempts have always been made by some leaders to group all the tribal of Manipur, except the Nagas, into Kuki just to confuse the authorities and some leaders by citing the Government’s records. This is wrong analogy and is connoted due to the fact that during the British Regime, some Kuki officials who manned the key posts personally enticed the British officers that no proper, correct data and records could be assessed as to record some tribes to the effect of their genetical existence and to the true picture of their ethnology, with a result that many tribal communities were whimsically misnamed as Kukis. Again emphasis has always been made by some leaders that the same stock of people are called Kukis in the Republic of India, and Chins in the Union of Burma or a Chin becomes Kuki the moment he crosses the Indo-Burma border and vice-versa. This fickle change of nomenclature, as if metamorphosis, is nothing but too fictious. Opinions may be differ and leaders may claim as belonging to one group or another, and also published some self interested books like “Thado-Kuki Clan” so as to include all other tribes under their whimsical encirclement. But no other information, data, specimen and records are more accurate and reliable than that of the Linguistic Survey of India by G. A. Grierson. Thus according to page 2 and 3 of this Book, under the Chins of India, over and above that of Burma, come the following tribes:Thado, Ralte, Lai, Bangjogi, Bete, Aimo, lJiroi-Lamgang, Purum, Chinme, Yindu, Khami Sokte, Paite, Lakher, Pankhu, Allam, Anal, Kolren, Hmar, Welaung, Chibon, Siyin, Tashon, Lushei, Rangkhol, Langrong, Chiru, Kom, Cha, Chimbok, Khyang or ShoThese peoples, as Chin tribes, form a distinct ethnological unit and closely related to one another linguistically, traditionally, socially, culturally, physically, historically, etc. The Chins, unlike the Nagas, can
ad
converse with a clear understanding in their respective dialects.11.4.4. [4] THE TERRITORY OF CHINS According to an unbiased Anthropologist, as manifested in the Book of Linguistic Survey of India, the territory inhabited by the Chin tribes extends from the Naga Hills in the North down into the Saudoway District of Burma in the South, from the Mytha river of Burma in the East almost to the Bay of Bengal in the West. Hence, the territory of Chin had been demarcated as to include some part of India and Burma and their existence of geographical bounds also had been circumscribed by their consolidated ethnological inhabitant of these areas. Moreover, though the territory due to the Divide and Rule Policy of the British, was artificially disintegrated into main Divisions; yet the International Boundary, the Mac-Mohan Line, which is the basic point of Sino-Indo border dispute, still seals Burma as a part and parcel of India.11.4.5. [5] THE RELATIONSHIP OF CHINS OF INDIA AND BURMA Mentioned has already been made of their ethnology that all the tribal peoples, other than the Nagas in the Indo-Burma border areas, are called Chins and no sane tribal of this region could deny of their relations with the tribal peoples of Burma and of the recent migration from the Chin Hills of Burma to India. As such, the ethnological unit or origin and the relationships of the Chins of Burma and India have been conspicuously transmitted through their culture, social life, history, tradition, language, poetry and songs and customs as marked by their uniform celebrations of National Festivals, etc. So is the case in many other aspects of their daily life and administration. There may be slight variations in the dialects, but the Chins, unlike the other tribal people, can converse in their respective dialects freely. And the chain of their relationship is circumscribed not only by geographical bounds but more often by racial unity. The Chins of Burma and India have and still maintain a distinctive culture and social life of their own which have been pervaded through ages in poetry and songs with thoughtful and meaningful ideas. The feeling of their blood relationship has been imbibed so much in them that no constitution on earth or no existing law will justify this separation of Chin people who had been living together through ages without bar and segregation.11.4.6. [6] THE POLITICAL STATUS OF THE CHINS BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER BRITISH REGIME The Chins lived in a complete independence before the British Regime without any outside interference whatsoever from any quarter, and no part of her territory was ever subjugated under Burmese or Indian administration. They even raised into the plains of Burma. The contiguous area inhabited by the Chins as already mentioned was a compact and homogeneous one. But as far as in the Nineteenth Century, the British came and eventually conquered the Chins (in all nearly 7,000 guns were taken from the tribes between 1893 and 1896) and the area was arbitrarily divided under them for administrative convenience by disintegrating it into Chin Hills, Manipur, Tripura, Arakan, Chittagong Hill Tracts and North Cachar Hills. The land so conquered was annexed to their administration. Even then the Chins in various regions were still knitted together by common tradition, custom and culture, mode of living, language and social life. During the British Regime, the Chins of Burma and India freely mixed together and lived harmoniously. As there was no restriction of movement as is imposed today there was free intermarriage and social and commercial trading intercourse amongst them. They administered themselves in accordance with their own customary laws and ways. It was rather a sovereign land where the people enjoyed a perfect harmony of their own, and their recognition attributed by the Government was the levying of Nominal House Tax by the British. When Burma
ad
was partitioned from India in 1937, we were not consulted nor were a chance given to us to explain what we were and are. When India was in the threshold of Independence from the shackles of foreign domination, the terms were agreed upon that Burma and Pakistan would also be given self domination status. Thus the Chins have undisputable right of regaining their former political status. But, unfortunately, no such provisions were guaranteed to the Chins nor were they given a chance to claim perhaps, due to their ignorance andunconsciousness of their political fate. Inspite, the artificial Indo-Burma boundary demarcated by the British was secretly confirmed between the contracting parties themselves without considering the culture, custom, history, tradition, relation, economic condition, political rights, etc. of the Chin people of these regions. This Division not only leads to the detriment of the people’s weal but deprives of their political, economic and social rights and is quite unfair, unconditional, undetermined and unadaptable because no strong voice as to preserve their fundamental rights can be raised from either side. Since no part of the Chin Territory was ever subjugated under the Burmese or Indian Government and the Chins enjoyed their self-administration before the British annexation; they after the British let the country, have legitimate right to be free again. But when India achieved her independence in 1947, the Chins in this region were too ignorant and illiterate as to determine what future form of political status would be most desirable and conducive form them and for the Indian independence. They in the true sense were far from being realized, and subsequently some part of the Chin areas were annexed to Burma and some to India without their knowledge. The consequence is that while the other brethren of India, for more than ten years of keen exercising their right to enjoy self-determination to solve their political destiny, the Chins have been neglected too much and given no chance other than the step-motherly treatment as a second rate citizens, to enjoy such status irrespective of their legitimate right and of provision incorporated in Indian Constitution for minorities and tribes. Hence something could be done for their preservation and checking all these shortcomings and maladjustment by re-uniting all the Chin tribes, for they will surely succumb sooner or later to extinction and extermination, and may even cause costly and irreparable loss. Thus for a stable and sound administration of the country and as our legitimate rights, we, for and on behalf of all the Chin peoples, put forth this demand for the reunification of the Chins within one country where every community can has District or Division or Region for the preservation of their fundamental rights. Therefore, for all the facts and reasons enumerated above, we approach the Government of India with good-will and understanding to take initiative step immediately as to re-unite all the Chin tribes into one Territory by rectifying the artificial demarcation of the boundary between India and Burma as specified thereof.Yours faithfully,Dated: the 30th May, 1960ChurachandpurSd/- T. GOUKHENPAUPresident,Paite National CouncilSd/- S. VUNGKHOM Chief SecretaryPaite National Council
ad
(Source: True Copy)__________________________________
11.5. FIRST WORLD ZOMI CONVENTION
Venue : Champhai: MizoramMAY 19 – 21, 19887.5.1. DECLARATION “We, the people of Zo ethnic group, Inhabitants of the highlands in The Chin Hills and Arakans of Burma, The Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh, The Mizoram State and adjoining hill areas of India Are descendants of one ancestor. Our language, our culture and tradition, And no, less our social and customary practices Are clear evidences of the ethnological facts. Further, our historical records, And footprints both written and unwritten In the sands of time testify To the truth of our common ancestry. “Much against the interest for preservation, Consolidation and promotion of our ethnic identity, The British colonial rulers after subjugating us During the later part of the 19th century, Exercised the imperialistic policy Of ‘Divide and Rule’. As a result, our ancestral homeland was divided, So were members of the Zo community distributed Like cattle sold and separated. “Adding grave insult to injury, The emergence of the sovereign state Of India, Burma and Pakistan in 1940s Had the administrative fragmentations aggravated And gave birth to deeper agonies of separation For the constitutional laws of respective countries Divided Zo ethnic origin into different nationalities. “For better part of the century, Largely because of our limited outlook Both in terms historical and political, The gravity of our uncertain situation
ad
And the danger for our ethnological demise Received no meaningful political response. The genocidal threat of neo-colonialism Against our Zo ethnic survival Still remain ever unredeemed. “Now with political consciousness gaining momentum, And the spirit of nationalism quickening us Come fuller realization of our human rights And of our political prerogatives We cannot but feel burdened With the paramount importance of Zo Reunification For preservation and existence of Zo ethnic identity. “Re-asserting, therefore, our faith and confidence In the code of comity of Nation For redeeming injustices done to Zo ethnic origin, We, the delegates to the First World Zo Convention of Zo Reunification Ethnically enshrined on this day Twentieth Day of the Month of May In the year of our Lord Nineteen Eighty-Eight Upon the alter of Zo Reunification As under:11.5.2. CHARTER OF AGREEMENT I “We solemnly affirm the truth That members of Zo ethnic origin Now living in Burma, India and Bangladesh Are a people of common ancestry Speaking a common language, Blessed with common social, Cultural and religious background, And destined to common political fate and destiny. II We sincerely pledge and affirm Solidarity and integration to take on A just struggle for Zo Re-Unification Under one Administrative umbrella In conformity with the resolution of the Chin-Lushai Conference Held at Ford William, Calcutta On January 29, 1892.
ad
III We firmly hold the universal truth That our political aspirations for Zo Reunification Regardless of international boundary constraints Are the inalienable rights of all Zo ethnic origin, Further, we solemnly acknowledge the claim For Zo Re-unification to be wholly legitimate. IV “We firmly adopt the principle of non-violence For attaining the Zo Re unification. V “We sincerely appeal to the consciences Of all heads of States and Governments Under whom Zo Communities are citizens respectively To recognize and acknowledge The rightful claim for Zo Reunification. Further, we appeal to one and all Believing in the Universal Human Rights To lend support to the just struggle For Zo Reunification At all levels and at different stages.”11.5.3. ORGANISATIONIn order to promote the just struggleFor Zo Re-unification – I “We solemnly affirm and resolve That a loose political forum Called the “ZO RE-UNIFICATION ORGANISATION” be formed. (And is hereby formed) Further, we resolve that Zo re-unification Organisation (ZORO) Be a forum covering all political parties And Individuals – (i) Acknowledging the rightful claim For Zo Re-unification; (ii) Accepting the paramount importance Of Zo Re-unification Above and beyond party politics, and
ad
(iii) Willing to subscribe the ideas and views As may develop time to time Through the forum of ZORO. II “WE affirm and resolve that (i) ZORO as a forum shall not interfere In any local political programmes and activities Of any constituent political party; (ii) No constituent political unit of ZORO In absence of consultation with ZORO Shall organize any local political party activities As may adversely affect the objectives of ZORO; (iii) Any of the political parties Involving and participating in ZORO Shall enjoy the privilege of exercising certain discretions As to form frontal organizations Within the respective party concerned Primarily for promotion of the just struggle For Zo Reunification, and (iv) ZORO, as a forum, shall normally finalise Important policy decisions In matters related directly or indirectly To the just struggle for Zo Re-unification. “WE, the Undersigned, For and on behalf of Zo people, Living and children yet to be born, Look to God in prayer, And seal this document with our signatures. LONG LIVE ZO RE-UNIFICATION.” SIGNED BY 40 DELEGATES REPRESENTING DIFFERENT ORGANISATIONS. AND NINETY EIGHT OTHERS. (Source: True Copy/Zogam.Online)
11.6. ZO RE-UNIFICATION ORGANIZATION(ZORO)
General Headquarters, Aizawl,MizoramMILLENIUM DECLARATIONOn this auspicious 108th ANNIVERSARY of the CHIN-LUSHAI CONFERENCE 29th January Millenium year. We,
ad
the delegates of the ZO Re-Unification Convention, according to the Declaration of First World Re-Unification Convention held at Champhai in May 1988 reaffirmed the commitment anew and proclaim the following Millenium declaration:- We the indigenous people of the ZO country proclaim and accept that ZO is our Nationality because we are the descendents of a man, whose name was ZO and the ZO inhabited Area is ZO country.- Our objective is the restoration of the Fundamental Rights of the ZO Nation by re-unifying our people. The ZO people’s Fundamental Rights had been taken away by the divisions of our country into parts of three countries.- We, hereby affirmed our commitment with solidarity and integrity to take up our struggle for Re- Unification of the Zo people under one administrative head in the spirit of Chin-Lushai (as the British then called us) conference of 1892.- We salute the freedom fighters of our fathers who courageously stood up against the contingents of the British expeditions which brought the division of our Zo country under the administrations of the then Assam, Burma, and Bengal.- We strongly protest the British colonial administration’s act of placing the administration of our country under Burma, India, and Pakistan after the Second World War against the wishes of the Zo people.- We, therefore, appeal to the international community to recognize our basic human rights and support our claim to re-instate the deprived rights of our ZO people in the spirit of Atlantic Charter which manifested against territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the people concerned. We appeal also to restore Zo people’s Fundamental Rights as a national entity, which had been taken away by an colonial alien concerned. We appeal also to restore Zo people’s Fundamental Rights as a national entity, which had been taken away by an colonial alien nation and given to three alien nations in contrary to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Art. 15) which forbids the arbitrarily deprivation of a person’s nationality. We signed this declaration in the spirit of the Chin-Lushai (ZO)conference resolution held at Fort William, Calcutta on January, 1892.(R.W. ROZATHANGChairman(R.THANGMAWIA)Secretary GeneralDATED AIZAWL THE 30TH OCTOBER 1988––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
11.7. JAPANESE INVASION OF THE CHIN HILLS AND EAST INDIA
Japan, under its dictator General Tojo, formed the Axis power with Italy under Mussolini and Germany under Hitler. Japan then declared war on the United States of America and attacked Pearl Harbor on 7th December 1941. By 1942 Japan had overrun China, French Indochina, British Singapore and Malaysia, Thailand and the U.S. possessions such as the Philippines, Guam etc. The Japanese crossed the Burma border in early 1942, took Pegu and Rangoon, and marched north toward Chinland.
The advance On to New Delhi “Chalo Delhi“ was launced in full scale by the Japanese in March 1944. The 15th Japanese Imperial Army(under the command of Lt. General Renya Mutaguchi) was assisted by the Indian
ad
National Army (I.N.A.)commanded by Cammander-in-Chief Subhas Chandras Bose. The main attack of India was launched through the Chin Hills and the Chindwin Valley. See Map 4 By early 1942, having successfully driven the British into India, the Japanese occupied Burma east of Chindwin River. In May 1942 the Governor of Burma fled to Simla in India and established a Burmese Government there, and Chin politicians - Vumthu Maung and members of the Chin Independence Party - were freed from Katha jail.(They were detained by the British because of their nationalist activities.) As soon as the Chin politicians were back in Chinland, after crossing the Dry Zone of Burma on foot, they organized the Chin freedom movement. When Japan granted nominal independence to Burma in 1943 Chin politicians under the leadership of Vumthu Maung declared Chin independence and formed a government with Vumthu Maung as its first president. Japan wanted to win the favour of Asian people and to do so propagated the
Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
In an attempt to win the trust of the Chin people the Japanese freed Chin soldiers of the Burma Army who had been capturede by them. These Burma Army regulars and the Chin Hills Battalion later became the backbone of the Levies formed to defend Chinland from the advancing Japanese. As soon as the Japanese occupied the Chin Hills, a local Army was formed by the Japanese army authorities to be known as the Chin Defence Army(C.D.A.). The first batch of army officers were appointed from those whom the Japanese used as guides and intelligence officers on the invasion of the Chin Hills and Assam.
“The first fierce battle the Chin Hills Battalion and the Chin Levies fought against the Japanese Artillery Battalion was at No. 3 Stockade(near Theizang village). A barrage of rifle fire and pangis of the Chins halted the first major Japanese advance from Burma reaching No. 3 stockade. In the fighting the majority of the advancing Japanese troops including their commanders were killed. Captain Sakamaki told us after their occupation of the Chin Hills that very few of them returned to Kalemyo alive. (Vum Ko Hau, p. 25) “To begin with the Japanese forces crushed the 17th Division[of the 14th British Army] in the Chin Hills area and pushed their drive in three directions - the west bank of the Chin River, the Tammu area, and midway between the Imphal-Kohima Road by way of Wukulu after crossing the Chindwin River. The focal objective of the Japanese forces was to beleaguer Imphal and to gain mastery over the Imphal Plains... Then the Japanese forces, which had been in full readiness for an opportunity to strike, went into action and after a little more than a month of fighting established domination over the Imphal Plains. The Indian National Army under the command of Subhas Chandra Bose, Head of the Provisional Government of Azad Hind, advanced into Indian territory for the liberation of their motherland.“(Vum Ko Hau, pp. 44-45) The 31st Division (of the Japanese 15th Army) of 20,000 men under Major General Kotuku Sato marched across the Chin-Naga Hills to attack Kohima on April 4, 1944. Kohima was defended by Chin and Naga soldiers of the 1st Assam Regiment. After a week of severe fighting, with assistance from the 2nd Indian Division, Kohima was held and the Japanese advance was stopped at Dimapur in Assam. Major General Tsumoru Yamamoto‘s 33rd Division attacked Imphal from all sides over a period of four months but could not break through. General Mutaguchi [Commander of the 15th Army] ordered his men to “continue in the task till all of your ammunition is expended. If your hands are broken, fight with your feet. If your hands and feet are broken, use your teeth. If there‘s no more teeth left in your body, fight with your spirit. Lack of weapon is no excuse for defeat.“ But the Japanese lacked not only arms. They were also madly driven by hunger and thirst. “The Imphal-Kohima battle which now ended was the last and greatest of the series that had been fought continuously during the past ten months on all the Burma fronts. They have achieved substantial results; the Japanese Army had suffered the greatest defeat in its history. Five Japanese Divisions(15th, 18th, 31st, 33rd and 56th) had, at any rate temporarily, been destroyed as fighting formations, while two other divisions, an independent brigade, and many line-of-communication units had been badly mauled. Fifty
ad
thousand Japanese had been killed or died, and their bodies counted in the Arakan and Assam sectors.“(Slim, W. Field Mashal.
Defeat into Victory
. London. 1956) The British troops were assisted by several thousands of local Chin Levies in their offensive campaigns against the Japanese.11.7.1.
JUSTICE UNDER THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION
In the early days of the Japanese occupation the Japanese soldiers behaved correctly and politely. There was not a single case of rape - in contrast to the British propaganda. But later their attitudes changed as their supplies grew thin, and herds of cattle belonging to the local people were slaughtered and grains confiscated by force. After some months in the Chin Hills the Japanese showed their methods of ruling an occupied country. Contrary to their propaganda the Japanese applied very cruel methods in ruling the Chin country. “Every educated person who served with distinction with the British against the Japanese before their occupation of the Chin Hills was ‘invited‘ from time to time to report to Tiddim. Most of the invitees expressed their unwillingness to serve in the new administration. When they got to Tiddim, the new divisional headquarters of the Japanese Army for north Burma and East India, they found that things were not moving as they expected. Some of the Chiefs who took active command of their clan Levies found themselves in chains; many persons were slapped as they reported. Other Chiefs were required to reside near the Japanese camps; guns were requisitioned lest they were used for revolt. Some suspected as spies for the British were slapped, boxed, and beaten to death in drawing rooms within the sight of their families. All were required to bow low in front of the Japanese officers. One had to announce one‘s name every time one reported to the Japanese commissioner. Many a fat and haughty person during the British days became slim and cautious overnight. As soon as the Japanese reached the heart of the Chin Hills, they started killing people on the slightest suspicion. I believe that this was to frighten the people and to show who the real masters were for the fact that they would not win the love or respect of the place they occupied in the ordinary way. The worse form of sufferings by the people in the Japanese occupied zones were the requisitioning of food and labour. On account of the war, no cultivation could be done and as such less food was produced, but the Japanese imperial troops came without rations and as such they had to requisition whatever food they could in the occupied territory. This was most difficult in a place like the Chin Hills through which they attempted to invade India. Almost all the ponies were requisitioned, also cattle and later mithuns. The 300-mile long motor road from Kalemyo-Chin Hills to Bishenpur-Imphal was to be maintained by the local requisitioned labour; this gave no time for the local people to cultivate; the Japanese troops depended on the people‘s food and they gave them no time to cultivate to produce food. This was impossible.“(Vum Ko Hau, p. 31) “This kind of requisitioning of labour by force did not take place only in the Chin Hills. The same thing was done for the Burma-Siam railway line construction. This work was more familiarly known as the Death Railway line. Beside the European prisoners-of-war from Indonesia and Southeast Asia, many labourers from Indonesia, Thailand and south Burma were requisitioned. Some whole families were sent and never returned.“ (Vum Ko Hau, p. 52)11.7.2.
ARMED RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS AGAINST THE JAPANESE
As soon as the Japanese occupied the Chin Hills, a local army called the Chin Defence Army(C.D.A) was formed up by the Japanese. The first batch of officers were appointed from those whom the Japanese used as
ad
guides and intelligence officers on the invasion of the Chin Hills and Assam. The tasks of the CDA was to look after the Japanese occupied territories of the Chin Hills, while the Japanese forces and the INA were to invade India.
By June 1944, however, many Japanese troops had begun to retreat towards the Chin Hills from the Imphal front. Tiddim was made the field hospital for Japanese troops. Every day my Levy Commander, Bo[“officer“ in Burmese] Pau Za Kam, had to supply about seventy labourers to bury Japanese who died in the Tiddim(Lawibual) field hospital...All the local traitors‘ reports about our impending rebellion reached my headquarters first and I could destroy them... Before we parted from the Japanese Headquarters at Tiddim, Bo[“officer“ in Burmese] Bo Thawng Cin Thang and I had vowed that I would look after our interests in the Japanese occupied areas and that he would take care of what went on in the British territories... I had the satisfaction of having looked after his brother who was reported adverse to the Japanese commissioners. The fact was recorded by Bo Thawng Cin Thang in a written certificate. Together with Colonel Kelly, Bo Sein Lian and Bo Suang Lian left Saizang on the 13th March 1944 and hid themselves in the west Manipur river area although the locality was traversed by the Japanese troops on one occasion when they marched up to cut off British troops at Singgial at M.S. 102. They formed the first staff officers of the resistance movements which were later known as the Sokte Independence Army
*
and the Siyin Independence Army
*
or in short S.I.A. Theorganisation of the Sokte Independence Army was initiated by Chief Bo Hau Za Lian of Suangzang, Bo Thawng Cin Thang and other headmen on the West bank of the Manipur river. Bo Thawng Cin Thang, Bo Hau Za Lian, Bo Sein Lian, Bo Suang Lian, B.G.M., and the other commanders and members of the S.I.A. crossed theManipur river and made headquarters at Mualbem.
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Dear Mr. Vum Khaw Hau, Damm good show for the grand job of work you have done and been doing. We are extremely anxious to hear the outcome of SUAH LIM show. I think, the quicker we get your family and other important persons behind the screen, the better, as the 60 reported now at PHUNOM can divert anywhere they like.(1) We shall greatly appreciate if Suang Hau Thang, Lian Thawng, Sumbedar Thuam Cin and other notables can be called. (2) O.C. will not object to Chiefs and familiies coming over to us voluntarily. This applies to important and Jap blacklisted persons as well. As for the mass of the people from the Valley, we can assure that it is only a question of a few days before our troops arrive. So, would it not be advisable if they hide food in the jungle and keep themselves out of the houses, if Jap punitive party attempts to come. Arrangements re: this FREE CHIN MOVEMENT, in all respects, sounds extremely O.K. Please extend my congratulations to MESSRS. SON NGUL and COMPANY for their impending appointments in the FREEDOM MOVEMENT. Chief Hau Za Lian will come to see his men on 21-9-44. He will tell you details.Better times soon
P.S.
V. Good news just received.Yours sincerely, Please ask Mr. Suak PuumThawng Cin Thang 20-9-1944
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* The letter above leis one of the three letters of Bo Thawng Cin Thang addressed to the author[Vum Kho Hau] in connection with the wartime activities of the Siyin Independence Army and of the Free Chins in 1944.(It is an exact reproduction of the original text from his(VKH) book on page 60. The brief information above which is related to the Sokte Indpendence Army and the Siyin Independence Army, and this letter of Bo Thawng Cin Thang to Vum Ko Hau, desribed on the previous page is to straighten out the records as to the existence of the two separate organizations and the cordial relations, mutual-respect and trust between the top leaderships of them. For further information on this subject see Vum Ko Hau‘s book pp. 55-62. tzd
ad
And in every part of the Chin Hills various resistance movements were secretly organized against the Japanese. A well-formed organization among them in the Northern Chin Hills was the
Chin Leaders‘ Freedom League,
whose main aim was to look after the interests of the undefended local Chin people from the Japanese oppression. Some of its outstanding leaders were Vum Ko Hau(Thuklai), Gin Za Tuang(Tonzang), Vul Za Thang(Tonzang), Pau Za Kam(Khuasak),
Khai Mun Mang(Thuklai), Sum Mang (Zahau area), Awn Ngin(Buanman), Zuk Tsio and Pi Don Khaw Cing(Vum Ko Hau, 31 & 55). “The resistance movements quickly spread to Ngawn, Falam, Zahau and Haka areas, and in September 1944 an open rebellion was launched. After being suppressed for so long the Zo people were exploding for freedom, and an organization called ‘Free Chins‘ was born. The Free Chins attacked the Japanese at Mualbem, Sualim, Suangaktuam and Sakhiang...The success of the Free Chins, or as it was then known asthe
Chin Independence Army
, was enormous. Lt. General Shinichi Tanaka[Commander of the 18th Division of the 15th Japanese Imperial Army in the Arakan war theatre] was not satisfied with the intelligence reports collected by the Arakan, Indian and Burman agents on the movements of the British inside East India. He therefore gave orders to recruit the local Chins, too. The Japanese intelligence network under Captain Tanaka Seirokuro was very successful when Chin agents were employed. At first the Masho and Khami Chin agents collected information on the movements of the West African Division as it moved south down the Kaladan Valley. As Chin settlements stretched from the Valleys of Kaladan to Bandurban and Chiranga, the Chins could easily infiltrate into Chittagong and head west in Bengal. However, the Japanese defeat at the beginning of 1945 changed the conditions. The Japanese intelligence network depended on getting their food supply from the local people, and in many instances the Japanese used brutal methods to obtain food. The local people therefore attacked the base of the intelligence unit and slaughtered all the Japanese.“(Vumson, pp. 177-178) The Japanese were in several Asian countries heartily welcomed at the beginning of World War II as true liberators from the yoke of various Western colonial powers , but their cruelties soon became so loathsome that at the ending parts of the War uncountable Japanese lost their lives at the hands of the occupied peoples.
11.8. THE CHIN/ZO PEOPLE IN POST-INDEPENDENCE BURMA
The signing of the “Panglong Agreement“ by the peoples‘ representatives of Burmans, Shans, Kachins and Chins on the 12th February in 1947 at Panglong in Southern Shan State gave birth to the Union of Burma. If the Shans, Chins and Kachins had not signed this treaty, only “Burma Proper“ or “Ministrial Burma“ would have gained independence and there would never be a Union of Burma. The Kayas or Karennis did not sign this treaty because the four Karenni states, which were later made into Kaya State, were de jure independent sovereign states recognized both by the Burmese Kings and the British in 1875 in a treaty. Five thousand Chin delegates from all regions of Chinland held a conference in Falam from February 10 to 22, 1948 and decided to abolish the centuries-old feudalism and to replace it with democratic systems of governance. The voting for this decision took place on the 20th February. This date has later been recognized by the Chins as their
National Day
and it is celebrated yearly by every Chin community
- except in Burma itself.
In Burma those who want to celebrate it must ask for permission every year from local authorities. So whether permission will be given or not depends entirely on the whims of those authorities concerned. The successive Burmese governments have been trying in vain since 1974 to change it to “Chin State Day“. The Zos in Mizoram got their statehood on February 20, 1987. Hence, this day is celebrated yearly in Mizoram as the “Mizoram State Inauguration Day“ as well(see
Appendix I
for more information on the
Chin National Day.
Note: Read
“ZOMI“
for
“CHIN“).
ad
When Burma and India gained their Independence the Chins were, without their opinion being asked,automatically divided into two parts.(Actually, the demarcation of the boundary between the British India and British Burma had already done by the British back in 1937.) And then when East Pakistan [now Bangladesh] seceded from India those in India were once again automatically partitioned into two parts. Immediately following its independence on January 4, 1948, the country was torn apart by a ruthless civil war which is still raging until today. In fact, it was mainly the Chin, Gurkha, Kaya(Karenni) and Kachin soldiers who had saved the Union of Burma from the Karens
*
and the “multi-coloured insurgents“ (it‘s a term used by the successive Burmese regimes to denote all the armed movements of various ideological stripes that were fighting against the central government in Rangoon). Almost all the strategic towns in Central Burma were in the hands of these armed organizations. The Karens had even taken Insein in 1949 - a satellite town located just some 9 miles from the center of Rangoon - that the Burmese government had already been
called “the Rangoon Government“ in theliterally sense. Most of the government soldiers of ethnic Burman themselves had joined either the Communist Party of Burma or other armed Burmese organizations. So it became the sole duty of non-Burman soldiers to fight on the government‘s side. Although other non-Burman soldiers(one Kaya battalion,one Shan battalion, one Gurkha battalion, three Kachin battalions and three Karen battalions altogether) had also played extremely crucial roles in the government‘s countrywide military campaigns, the most decisiverole was played by the 1st and 2nd Chin Rifles in defending Insein, the most strategic battle front of all. Later one of the Kachin battalions and most of Karen soldiers from the three Karen battalions mentioned above joined their compatriots against the government. The Karens had to withdraw from Insein after a 112- day siege. All the military experts, who had had analysed these military campaigns, agreed that if Insein had fallen then, Rangoon also would have fallen automatically. Later three more battalions comprised solely of the Chins were formed: the 3rd and 4th Chin Rifles and the “Union Military Police“ or “UMP“. From 1949 up to 1953 U Nu, the Prime Minister of Burma from 1948-1958 and 1960-62, himself always publicly acknowledged in his every speech on the occasions of the “Union Day“(12th February ) and the “Martyrs‘ Day“, the decisive roles that the said non-Burman soldiers had played in saving the Union. The “Martyrs‘ Day“ is the 19th July. On this day in 1947 General Aung San, the father of Burma‘s independence and his cabinet ministers were assassinated. Partly because of these bitter experiences on the Burmans‘ part all ethnics were mixed up in Burma‘s armed forces since the late 1950s. But nowadays not even a single Burman - not to mention the Chinese and Indians in Burma
- knows about these facts anymore, because these are not mentioned at all in Burmese history books. Here are a few evidences to show how crucial the role that the two Chin battalions had played in defending Rangoon against the Karens for the Burma was: an officer received Burma‘s highest military award for gallantry - the
Aung San Thuriya
; the second highest award
Thiha Thuriya
was given to another officer;
Thura Tazeik
, the third highest award was received by 16; the fourth highest award,
“Thuyegaung Hmat-Htan-Win Award“
was given to 24 (
Thuyegaung
in Burmese means
hero
); the fifth highest award the
Supreme Commander‘s Certificate of Gallantry Award (SCCOG)
was conferred to 27;
Certificate of
Honour
was conferred to 1. So,––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* The Karens are also of Mongoloid stock numbering circa 3 to 4 million residing in vast areas in the fertile delta and Southeastern parts of Burma, and in Thailand. When the British left Burma most of the high ranking senior officers of the armed forces - Army, Air Force and Navy - were Karen. The Karens are Christian, Buddhist and Animist - roughly perhaps in equal proportions. They were one of the most loyal peoples in Burma to the British, like the Chins, Kayas(Karennis) and Kachins, up to Burma‘s independence. These non-Burmans had valiantly fought along with the Allied Forces against the Japanese during WW II. When Burmans and the other Pang Long Agreement signatories were negotiationg with the British Government, the Karens had even sent a separate delegation to London to demand a sovereign Karen state, but the British betrayed their aspirations.
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
ad
Reward Your Curiosity
Everything you want to read.
Anytime. Anywhere. Any device.
No Commitment. Cancel anytime.
