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Andrias davidianusAndrias davidianus

Chinese Giant Salamander

Andrias davidianus

Abstract

Chinese Giant Salamander Andrias davidianus has most recently been assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2020. Andrias davidianus is listed as Critically Endangered under criteria A2acde.


The Red list Assessmenti

Last assessed

09 December 2020

Scope of assessment

Global

Population trend

Decreasing

Number of mature individuals

Population in detail

Habitat and ecology

Wetlands (inland)

Habitat and ecology in detail

Geographic range

+−
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  • Extant (resident)

  • Presence Uncertain

IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) & Conservation International 2020. Andrias davidianus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2023-1
Geographic range in detail

Taxonomy

Kingdom

Animalia

Phylum

Chordata

Class

Amphibia

Order

Caudata

Family

Cryptobranchidae

Genus

Andrias

Scientific name

Andrias davidianus

Authority

(Blanchard, 1871)

Synonyms

Sieboldia davidiana Blanchard, 1871

Common names

English

Chinese Giant Salamander, Huangshan Giant Salamander, Maoershan Giant Salamander

Taxonomic sources

Frost, D.R. 2020. Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA Available at: http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index.html.

Identification Information

Taxonomic notes

This is a restricted concept of this species following the split of the broader concept into this and Andrias sligoi (Turvey et al. 2019).

Assessment Information

IUCN Red List Category and Criteria

Critically Endangered A2acde

ver 3.1

Date assessed

09 December 2020

Year published

2023

Year last seen

Previously published Red List assessments

    Regional assessments

      Assessor(s)

      IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group

      Reviewer(s)

      Chanson, J.S.

      Contributor(s)

      Cunningham, A., Tapley, B., Wen, B., Xie, F., Liang, G., Wei, G., Baorong, G., Chai, J., Che, J., Zuo, L., Xiao, L., Lau, M., Takahashi, M., Murphy, R.W., Turvey, S.T., Chen, S., Okada, S., Zhao, T., Jie, W., Jiang, W.-S., Yan, F., Zhang, Y., Liang, Z. & Zhao, Z.

      Facilitator(s) / Compiler(s)

      Tapley, B., Luedtke, J. & Hobin, L.

      Partner(s) / Institution(s)

      Authority / Authorities

      IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group

      Justification

      Listed as Critically Endangered because of an observed drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 80% over the last three generations (the generation length is estimated to be 15 years), due to a decline in the extent of occurrence and habitat quality, over-exploitation which has extirpated subpopulations from areas of remaining suitable habitat, and the possible effects of introduced pathogens and hybridisation from salamander farming operations. Despite the uncertainty surrounding its true distribution and further taxonomic work needing to be carried out, there are sufficient data that demonstrates widespread, severe declines across all Andrias species populations within China due to extensive harvesting for food and habitat loss.

      Geographic Range

      Native

      Extant (resident)

      China (Shaanxi, Sichuan, Gansu, Henan, Shanxi, Yunnan, Hunan, Chongqing)

      Extant & Origin Uncertain

      China (Guizhou)

      Presence Uncertain & Origin Uncertain

      China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hebei, Qinghai, Zhejiang, Jiangxi)

      Number of locations

      4

      Upper depth limit

      Lower depth limit

      Estimated area of occupancy (AOO) (km²)

      Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO)

      Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO)

      Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²)

      Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO)

      Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO)

      Continuing decline in number of locations

      Unknown

      Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations

      Range Description

      This species has traditionally been interpreted as a single geographically wide-ranging species distributed across multiple montane ecoregions and river basins (Yangtze, Yellow, Pearl, and southeast Chinese river drainages); however, it has recently been shown to constitute a complex of at least three different species including the South China Giant Salamander Andrias sligoi and at least one other undescribed taxon (Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019, Turvey et al. 2019). This species is now considered to be native only to the Yangtze and Yellow River drainages in China (Liang et al. 2018, Yan et al. 2018, Turvey et al. 2019) and is associated with the Qinling, Dabashan, Zhongtiaoshan, Daliangshan and Wumengshan mountain ranges (Liang et al. 2019). It is known with certainty from Gansu, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and Chongqing municipality in China (Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019). Records from Daliangshan mountain range are uncertain, and further taxonomic work needs to be carried out to verify their identity (Andrias Workshop December 2020). 

      While this species has been reported from in the Qinling mountains of Gansu and Sichuan provinces (Clade C of Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019), and the Nanling mountains of Guangxi Province (Clade A of Yan et al. 2018), the taxonomic identity of these records remain uncertain. Clade C subpopulations represent a sister lineage to this species; however, these subpopulations might represent a distinct undescribed species, as phylogenetic analyses show a deep genetic divergence between these two clades. The Clade A subpopulation from the Nanling mountains in Guangxi Province is not sister to either of the described Chinese Andrias species and this subpopulation might also represent a distinct, undescribed, species. A giant salamander specimen was also reportedly collected in 1966 from the headwaters of the Yangtze River in Qumalai County, Qinghai Province, China at an elevation of 4,200 m asl; this potentially represents a disjunct, isolated salamander subpopulation occurring at an elevation >2,000 m asl, higher than any other known subpopulation (Chen 2011, Pierson et al. 2014). The existence of this subpopulation has not been confirmed (Pierson et al. 2014), and its taxonomic status is uncertain. For the purpose of this assessment, these records are included in the map but coded as 'Presence Uncertain'.

      Records of the species in Taiwan, Province of China have not been confirmed although Chinese giant salamanders that were due to be illegally exported to Taiwan have been confiscated in Fujian Province (B. Tapley pers. comm. October 2020).

      A single captive specimen of A. sligoi exists in Japan (M. Takahashi pers. comm. November 2020). There are possibly other introduced lineages of Chinese Andrias present in Japan as well. Morphological data suggest mixing between the Japanese and Chinese Andrias species, and mtDNA that are specific to Chinese Andrias was found from giant salamanders in Japanese rivers showing intermediate morphology between Japanese and Chinese species (Matsui et al. 2008).

      The wide-scale and intentional releases of giant salamanders across China have resulted in genetic homogenisation of some local subpopulations (Yan et al. 2018). A. davidianus that were thought to have originated from farm releases have been found across China e.g. Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hebei, Jiangxi and Zhejiang Provinces (Yan et al. 2018) although it is not yet known if these translocated animals can form viable subpopulations, and little evidence of any giant salamander subpopulations found across China in an extensive 2013–2016 field survey (Turvey et al. 2018).

      It is thought to occur between 100–1,700 m asl; however, there are historical (unconfirmed) reports of Andrias at one site in Qinghai Province at 4,200 m asl (Fei et al. 2012, Pierson et al. 2014).

      Population

      Current population trend

      Decreasing

      Number of mature individuals

      Population severely fragmented

      Yes

      Continuing decline of mature individuals

      Yes

      Extreme fluctuations

      No. of subpopulations

      Continuing decline in subpopulations

      Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations

      All individuals in one subpopulation

      No. of individuals in largest subpopulation

      Description

      Giant salamander subpopulations in areas of good-quality habitat have probably been in decline since at least the 1980s due to local consumption and/or exploitation for trade (Turvey et al. 2021). This is several decades before the development of the Chinese giant salamander farming industry, which has driven an escalation in the decline of wild populations since the early 2000s, due to extraction of wild animals across China to stock farms (Cunningham et al. 2016). Wild subpopulations may have further declined due to competition and/or hybridisation with farm escapees or deliberate releases of other giant salamander species from farms (Cunningham et al. 2016). In certain areas, populations may now be restricted to caves due to high levels of exploitation in non-subterranean habitats (Liang et al. 2019). Conversely, millions of individuals of the species exist in intensive farming operations for human consumption (Cunningham et al. 2016). There are small numbers in captive populations in zoos and aquaria in Europe, the United States, China, Canada, Japan and Singapore, although the lineage/species represented by these captive populations is unknown (B. Tapley pers. comm. October 2020, Andrias Workshop December 2020). 

      In addition, good-quality habitat for giant salamanders has declined across China in recent decades due to water development projects, pollution, industrialisation and urbanisation (Dai et al. 2009). 

      There is an inferred dramatic population decline of Andrias davidianus of at least 80% across its suspected natural range. Interviews conducted with freshwater resource users in 2013-2016 recorded that 56% of 1,163 people living within 1 km of the 40 field survey sites in Chongqing Municipality and Gansu, Hubei, Hunan, Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi and Sichuan provinces had seen a giant salamander in their lifetime (Turvey et al. 2018); however, across China, the mean time of last giant salamander sightings was 18.96 years earlier (Turvey et al. 2018). Only six individuals were detected at three sites during extensive ecological surveys conducted in 2013-2016, in suitable habitat (and often at sites with local historical records) across Chongqing Municipality (3 sites), Anhui Province (6 sites), Fujian Province (1 site), Gansu Province (4 sites), Guangdong Province (1 site), Hubei Province (4 sites), Henan Province (3 sites), Hunan Province (13 sites), Jiangxi Province (2 sites), Shaanxi Province (3 sites), Shanxi Province (1 site) Sichuan Province (9 sites), Yunnan Province (1 site) and Zhejiang Province (4 sites); these surveys represented a total of 3.96 years of cumulative search effort (Turvey et al. 2018). Evidence of electrofishing or the use of poison (known methods for harvesting giant salamanders) was observed at 22 of the 55 sites surveyed in this study (Turvey et al. 2018). Surveys for A. davidianus in Qinghai Province from June and July 2017 found no direct evidence for the species, although there were unverified reports of sightings by local people, the most recent dating from 2012 (Pierson et al. 2014). 

      This species is present outside its native range due to the deliberate releases of farmed individuals (Yan et al. 2018). There is insufficient evidence to state whether these releases have resulted in the establishment of viable populations, however, dead giant salamanders have been reported at release sites (Turvey et al. 2018).

      The population is severely fragmented; more than 50% of the population is inferred to occur in patches with no natural dispersal between them.

      Habitat and Ecology

      System

      Habitat type

      Wetlands (inland)

      Generation length (years)

      15 years

      Congregatory

      Movement patterns

      Not a Migrant

      Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat

      Yes

      Habitat and Ecology

      Like its congeners, Andrias davidianus occurs in clear, cool, slow to swift flowing streams with a pH of 6–7 in steep-sided, well-vegetated valleys (including forest) that have caves in rocky banks and karst landscapes (Wang et al. 2004). Between July and September, a single female can lay between 300–1,500 eggs (Fei et al. 2012) in an underwater burrow or cavity that is occupied by a male. Eggs are fertilized externally and are guarded by the male until they hatch 50–60 days later. Larvae then develop in the streams, taking food after about 30 days (Haker 1997). This species is also known to breed in subterranean caves (Dai et al. 2009, Liang et al. 2019).

      Congeneric species are known to reach maturity between 5–6 years of age; there are no exact records indicating longevity in the wild, but captive individuals of Chinese Andrias lineages have been known to survive for over 55 years (Ye et al. 1993). Based on this information, its generation length is estimated to be 15 years (Liang and Wu 2012). 


      Classification scheme

      HabitatsSeasonSuitabilityMajor importance
      5. Wetlands (inland)5.1. Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls)ResidentSuitableYes
      5.18. Wetlands (inland) - Karst and Other Subterranean Hydrological Systems (inland)ResidentSuitableYes

      Threats

      Agriculture & aquaculture

      • Marine & freshwater aquaculture

      Biological resource use

      • Logging & wood harvesting
      • Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources

      Natural system modifications

      • Dams & water management/use

      Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

      • Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases
      • Introduced genetic material

      Pollution

      • Industrial & military effluents
      • Agricultural & forestry effluents

      Threats

      The range-wide decline of giant salamanders across China has been attributed to overexploitation for various food markets (Wang et al. 2004; Feng et al. 2007; Dai et al. 2009; Cunningham et al. 2016; Turvey et al. 2018, 2021; Andrias Workshop December 2020), and to habitat loss and degradation through anthropogenic modification of freshwater habitats, including through pollutant emissions and the alteration of flow regimes and water turbidity from damming (Wang et al. 2004, Dai et al. 2009). Giant salamander populations in areas of good-quality habitat have probably been in decline from at least the 1980s, due to local consumption and/or exploitation for trade; this is several decades before the development of the Chinese giant salamander farming industry (Turvey et al. 2021). Since the farming industry was established there has been a major escalation in levels of exploitation (Turvey et al. 2018, 2021), including the illegal collection of wild giant salamanders to stock farms (Cunningham et al. 2016).

      Habitat loss and fragmentation are highly likely to have a detrimental impact on any remaining Andrias davidianus subpopulations; Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces are ranked within the top five Chinese provinces for broad-sense deforestation (Ren et al. 2015), and giant salamanders are known to be associated with forest cover (Wang et al. 2004). Furthermore, much of the surveyed habitat for salamanders in Qinghai Province was deemed unsuitable for the species due to turbidity resulting from mining and erosion (Pierson et al. 2014).

      Molecular analysis of farmed giant salamanders demonstrates that A. davidianus has been harvested to stock breeding farms (Yan et al. 2018). Evidence of electrofishing or the use of poison (known methods for harvesting giant salamanders) were detected at 22 of the 55 sites surveyed in 2013–2016 in Chongqing Municipality and Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Yunnan and Zhejiang Provinces (Turvey et al. 2018).

      In a questionnaire-based interview survey conducted in 2013–2016, respondents across Chongqing Municipality and Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi,  Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan and Zhejiang Provinces reported that they had hunted giant salamanders during their lifetime (Tapley et al. 2021).

      This species has been released into areas outside of its native range as part of a well-intentioned ongoing programme by Chinese national and provincial governments to restock wild populations. Hybrids between Chinese and Japanese Giant Salamanders are now invasive in parts of Japan (Fukumoto et al. 2015). Given that Andrias spp. from China are more closely related to each other than A. japonicus it is likely that different species of giant salamanders in China are able to hybridise. It is therefore likely that hybridisation with both described and undescribed congeners is a threat to this species. The wide-scale transportation and release of giant salamanders across China has already resulted in the genetic homogenisation of some local populations (Yan et al. 2018). Furthermore, there is a risk that pathogens that cause disease in farmed giant salamanders could be inadvertently released, and this poses a threat to wild amphibians (Cunningham et al. 2016).

      Classification scheme

      ThreatsTimingStressesScopeSeverityInvasive speciesVirus
      2. Agriculture & aquaculture2.4. Marine & freshwater aquaculture2.4.1. Subsistence/artisinal aquacultureOngoing
      2. Species Stresses2.1. Species mortality
      2.3. Indirect species effects2.3.1. Hybridisation
      		UnknownUnknown
      2.4.2. Industrial aquacultureOngoing
      2. Species Stresses2.1. Species mortality
      2.3. Indirect species effects2.3.1. Hybridisation
      		UnknownRapid Declines
      5. Biological resource use5.3. Logging & wood harvesting5.3.4. Unintentional effects: (large scale) [harvest]Ongoing
      1. Ecosystem stresses1.1. Ecosystem conversion
      1.2. Ecosystem degradation
      2. Species Stresses2.2. Species disturbance
      5.4. Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources5.4.1. Intentional use: (subsistence/small scale) [harvest]Ongoing
      2. Species Stresses2.1. Species mortality
      		Whole (>90%)Rapid Declines
      5.4.2. Intentional use: (large scale) [harvest]Ongoing
      2. Species Stresses2.1. Species mortality
      		Whole (>90%)Rapid Declines
      7. Natural system modifications7.2. Dams & water management/use7.2.9. Small damsOngoing
      1. Ecosystem stresses1.1. Ecosystem conversion
      1.2. Ecosystem degradation
      7.2.10. Large damsOngoing
      1. Ecosystem stresses1.1. Ecosystem conversion
      1.2. Ecosystem degradation
      8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases8.1. Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases8.1.2. Named speciesOngoing
      2. Species Stresses2.3. Indirect species effects2.3.1. Hybridisation
      2.3.2. Competition
      		Andrias sligoi
      8.3. Introduced genetic materialOngoing
      2. Species Stresses2.3. Indirect species effects2.3.1. Hybridisation
      2.3.2. Competition
      2.3.8. Other
      		UnknownUnknown
      9. Pollution9.2. Industrial & military effluents9.2.2. Seepage from miningOngoing
      1. Ecosystem stresses1.2. Ecosystem degradation
      2. Species Stresses2.1. Species mortality
      2.2. Species disturbance
      9.3. Agricultural & forestry effluents9.3.2. Soil erosion, sedimentationOngoing
      1. Ecosystem stresses1.2. Ecosystem degradation
      2. Species Stresses2.1. Species mortality
      2.2. Species disturbance
      9.3.3. Herbicides and pesticidesOngoing
      1. Ecosystem stresses1.2. Ecosystem degradation
      2. Species Stresses2.1. Species mortality

      Use and Trade

      Establishing ex-situ production *

      Local: ✘
      National: ✔
      International: ✘

      Food - human

      Local: ✘
      National: ✔
      International: ✘

      Use and Trade

      Giant salamanders are known to have been exploited for both local use and regional trade for food in China throughout the twentieth century and probably earlier, with known movement of animals around China to historical trading centres such as Canton (= Guangzhou, Guangdong Province) (Sowerby 1925a, 1925b). Giant salamander populations in areas of good-quality habitat have probably been in decline from at least the 1980s due to local consumption and/or exploitation for trade (Turvey et al. 2021). Past exploitation has been for food, with little evidence for exploitation for traditional medicine (Turvey et al. 2021). Large-scale interview surveys conducted in 2013–2016 across the range of Andrias spp. in China revealed that 15.4% of 2,932 respondents in rural communities had consumed giant salamanders, and that dates of last consumption ranged from the 1940s to 2010 (Turvey et al. 2021). A nation-wide giant salamander farming industry has developed since the early 2000s, to supply animals for the various food markets within China (Cunningham et al. 2016, Andrias Workshop December 2020). Since the farming industry was established there has been a major escalation in levels of exploitation, including the illegal collection of wild giant salamanders to stock farms (Cunningham et al. 2016). Molecular analysis of farmed giant salamanders demonstrates that this species has been harvested to stock breeding farms, and has been detected on farms across its presumed native range as well as being exported to other parts of China (e.g. Guizhou Province) to stock farms (Yan et al. 2018). There are also hybridised individuals that are being used to stock farms, and further work is required to identify these individuals (Yan et al. 2018).

      Conservation Actions

      In-place research and monitoring

      • Action Recovery Plan : Yes
      • Systematic monitoring scheme : No

      In-place land/water protection

      • Conservation sites identified : Yes, over part of range
      • Occurs in at least one protected area : Yes

      In-place species management

      • Successfully reintroduced or introduced benignly : Unknown
      • Subject to ex-situ conservation : Yes

      In-place education

      • Included in international legislation : Yes
      • Subject to any international management / trade controls : Yes

      Conservation Actions

      Conservation Actions In-Place
      This species is listed as a Class II state key protected wildlife species in China, and all Andrias species have been listed in CITES Appendix I since 1975. The genus is considered a global priority for conservation due to its evolutionary history and global endangerment (Isaac et al. 2012). 

      The Chinese government has been carrying out a national action plan for Chinese giant salamander reintroduction into the wild since 2002 but this reintroduction has not considered the phylogeography of the genus (Yan et al. 2018). There are very few published accounts of successful reintroductions as post-release monitoring is not undertaken. Luo et al. (2009) reported the survival of some released individuals a year after their release. Some of the more recently released individuals have been pit tagged; however only one pit tagged individual (that was released in 2017) has been found and recorded again to date (Z. Liang pers. comm. December 2020). It is unknown which of the described Chinese Andrias species they belong to, and work needs to be carried out to identify their lineage (Z. Liang pers. comm. December 2020). Although releases are known to take place across much of central, southern and eastern China, very few surviving released individuals were detected in the wild during the range-wide giant salamander survey in 2013–2016, and dead salamanders have been found at known release sites (Turvey et al. 2018). Farm releases have not met IUCN translocation guidelines and they pose a risk to wild subpopulations, with translocations possibly spreading pathogens and mixing different lineages and/or species (Cunningham et al. 2016, Turvey et al. 2018, Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019, Turvey et al. 2019). In 2020, Hunan Provincial Forestry Bureau issued a document to the local governments of Zhangjiajie city, Shimen and Chenxi County to regulate the breeding and release programmes of giant salamanders which states the following: 1) The release programmes in the reserve areas must be approved by both the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and Zhangjiajie Giant Salamander National Nature Reserve; any release by social organisations or persons without approval are prohibited; and 2) Salamanders for release in nature reserve areas can only be provided by the rescue centre, both genetic assessment and disease quarantine are required, and releases of any hybrid individuals are prohibited (Andrias Workshop December 2020).

      Andrias davidianus is reported to occur in over 50 national, provincial and county-level nature reserves – some of which use the species as their main conservation target. It is difficult to determine how successful these reserves are in protecting the species, or even if the species is still extant in some of them, and it is known that releases (presumably including non-native species or lineages) are known to take place within many of these reserves (e.g. Luo et al. 2009) although this is thought to have stopped in many regions in recent years (J. Chai pers. comm. December 2020). The Hunan Giant Salamander Rescue Centre is conducting ex-situ conservation breeding for the genetic lineages they hold. Genetic testing has been carried out and is ongoing with individuals from clades B and D (as per Yan et al. 2018) identified as being held at the centre (J. Chai pers. comm. December 2020).

      Conservation Needed
      There are a number of different conservation actions required for this species. Firstly, protective legislation should be strengthened and enforced so that any remaining subpopulations can be safeguarded including legislation to separate farmed individuals from wild individuals (Lu et al. 2020, Andrias Workshop December 2020). Targeted ex situ action is required including the establishment of captive populations of different lineages that are managed for conservation breeding, with separation of individuals used for conservation breeding and in commercial breeding, and with subsequent translocations being considered (Lu et al. 2020). The release of salamanders from farms should be halted immediately. These animals are of unknown provenance and lineage, and are released into sites with no pre-release evaluation of the presence of extant giant salamanders, ecological impacts of the releases, or post-release monitoring. A coordinated and evidence based approach to reintroduction is needed, especially with regards to genetic screening and pre-release health screening, translocations should be evaluated with post release monitoring, and there is a need for closer collaboration between conservation biologists, protected area managers, fisheries departments and researchers to implement conservation actions (Lu et al. 2020). Measures are also required for a tagging system and farming licenses should be regulated (X. Lingyun pers. comm. December 2020). Any conservation plan will also need to incorporate a programme to raise awareness, involving civil societies, and educate locals on the importance of conserving the species (R. Murphy and W. Bo pers. comm. December 2020).

      Research Needed  
      Further research into the population size, distribution and trends, life history, ecology and threats is required. More work is also required to resolve taxonomic uncertainty and to identify evolutionarily significant units. There is an urgent need to develop a updated species conservation action plan.

      Conservation actions classification scheme

      Conservation Actions NeededNotes
      1. Land/water protection1.1. Site/area protection
      1.2. Resource & habitat protection
      2. Land/water management2.1. Site/area management
      2.2. Invasive/problematic species control
      3. Species management3.1. Species management3.1.1. Harvest management
      3.1.2. Trade management
      3.2. Species recovery
      3.4. Ex-situ conservation3.4.1. Captive breeding/artificial propagation
      4. Education & awareness4.3. Awareness & communications
      5. Law & policy5.4. Compliance and enforcement5.4.2. National level

      Research classification scheme

      Research NeededNotes
      1. Research1.2. Population size, distribution & trends
      1.3. Life history & ecology
      1.4. Harvest, use & livelihoods
      1.5. Threats
      1.6. Actions
      2. Conservation Planning2.1. Species Action/Recovery Plan
      2.2. Area-based Management Plan
      2.3. Harvest & Trade Management Plan
      3. Monitoring3.1. Population trends
      3.2. Harvest level trends
      3.3. Trade trends
      3.4. Habitat trends

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      External Data

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      Search terms: "Andrias davidianus", "Cryptobranchidae"

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