Database of all vitamin D COVID-19 studies. Sufficiency studies analyze
outcomes based on vitamin D levels, confounding factors may be significant.
Treatment studies directly analyze the effect of vitamin D treatment. Submit
updates/corrections below. vitamind4all.org provides
treatment recommendations.
3/6 |
Early, Late, PrEP, PEP | (Preprint) (meta analysis) | meta-analysis v30 | Vitamin D is effective for COVID-19: real-time meta analysis of 55 studies |
| • Vitamin D is effective for COVID-19. Random effects meta-analysis of the 18 treatment studies to date shows an estimated reduction of 63% in the effect measured, RR 0.37 [0.26-0.53]. • Sufficiency studies show a strong association betw.. | ||||
3/3 |
Levels | et al., Respiratory Research, doi:10.1186/s12931-021-01666-3 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓87.6%, p=0.07 | Circulating Vitamin D levels status and clinical prognostic indices in COVID-19 patients |
| Retrospective 52 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing that vitamin D deficiency is associated with compromised inflammatory responses and higher pulmonary involvement. Vitamin D deficient patients also showed higher mortality, although .. | ||||
2/24 |
PrEP | et al., Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu13030717 (Peer Reviewed) | cases, ↓50.4%, p=0.0002 | Vitamin D and Lung Outcomes in Elderly COVID-19 Patients |
| Retrospective 65 elderly COVID-19 patients and 65 matched controls, showing lower vitamin D levels associated with more severe lung involvement, longer disease duration, and higher mortality. Vitamin D supplementation was less common in t.. | ||||
2/23 |
Late | et al., Research Square, doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-152494/v1 (Preprint) | death, ↓60.9%, p=0.27 | Impact of Pulse D Therapy on The Inflammatory Markers in Patients With COVID-19 |
| RCT 44 treatment and 43 control patients with vitamin D levels <30ng/ml, showing significant reduction in inflammatory markers with treatment of 60,000IU vitamin D per day for 8 days (10 days for BMI >25). Death and ICU admission was lowe.. | ||||
2/19 |
Levels | et al., Journal of the American College of Nutrition, doi:10.1080/07315724.2020.1869626 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↑4.7%, p=0.83 | An Evaluation of Serum 25-Hydroxy Vitamin D Levels in Patients with COVID-19 in New York City |
| Retrospective 437 mostly serious condition (85% hospitalized) patients in New York, showing vitamin D deficiency associated with increased likelihood of oxygen support, but no association with mortality and hospitalization. Multivariate a.. | ||||
2/18 |
Levels | et al., Journal of the American College of Nutrition, doi:10.1080/07315724.2021.1877580 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓54.8%, p=0.05 | Low Vitamin D Status at Admission as a Risk Factor for Poor Survival in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19: An Italian Retrospective Study |
| Retrospective 137 hospitalized patients in Italy. All patients had low vitamin D levels, and lower levels were associated with higher mortality. In multivariate logistic regression, vitamin D levels were significantly inversely associate.. | ||||
2/12 |
Levels | et al., Journal of Medical Biochemistry, doi:10.5937/jomb0-30228 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓91.5%, p=0.32 | Low Levels of Vitamin D were Associated with Coagulopathy among Hospitalized Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) Patient: a Single Centered Study in Indonesia |
| Retrospective 50 hospitalized PCR+ patients in Indonesia showing ICU admission, mortality, and ISTH DIC (Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation) score>=5, and increased D-dimer significantly associated with lower vitamin D levels. | ||||
2/3 |
Levels | et al., Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, doi:10.1007/s12291-020-00950-1 (Peer Reviewed) | Association of Vitamin D Status with COVID-19 Infection and Mortality in the Asia Pacific region: A Cross-Sectional Study | |
| Analysis of vitamin D levels and COVID-19 in 37 Asia Pacific countries, finding a significant association with the number of cases/million (r = −0.394, p = 0.016) and a weak association with the number of deaths/ million (r = −0.280, p .. | ||||
2/1 |
Levels | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2021.01.29.21250759 (Preprint) | severe case, ↓2.0%, p=0.11 | Genetically predicted serum vitamin D and COVID-19: a Mendelian randomization study |
| UK Biobank Mendelian randomization study not finding significant differences in COVID-19 risk. The number of people predicted to have vitamin D deficiency does not appear to be provided. For some background on Mendelian randomization stu.. | ||||
1/31 |
Levels | et al., Critical Care Medicine, doi:10.1097/01.ccm.0000726440.30551.47 (Peer Reviewed) | Vitamin D Levels in Children With COVID-19 Admitted to the PICU | |
| Retrospective 14 pediatric COVID-19 ICU patients showing that the majority were vitamin D deficient. | ||||
1/29 |
Levels | et al., Journal of Medical Virology, doi:10.1002/jmv.26832 (Peer Reviewed) | severe case, ↓89.3%, p<0.001 | Vitamin D deficiency is associated with COVID‐19 positivity and the severity of the disease |
| Retrospective cohort study of 487 patients finding that lower vitamin D levels is associated with more severe cases as measured by affected lung segments and increased hospitalization time for COVID-19 positive patients, and that lower vi.. | ||||
1/29 |
PrEP | et al., The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa381 (Peer Reviewed) | cases, ↓30.0%, p=0.03 | Habitual use of vitamin D supplements and risk of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection: a prospective study in UK Biobank |
| Retrospective 8,297 adults from the UK Biobank showing the habitual use of vitamin D supplements significantly associated with lower risk of COVID-19 cases. Note that the information on vitamin D supplement use was collected a median of 1.. | ||||
1/29 |
Levels | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2021.01.28.21250673 (Preprint) | Is vitamin D deficiency associated with the COVID-19 epidemic in Europe | |
| Analysis of vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 cases and mortality in European countries showing significant correlations with infections (r=0.82, p<0.001) and mortality (r=0.53, p=0.05). | ||||
1/28 |
Review | , H., Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu13020411 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Vitamin D Supplementation to Prevent COVID-19 Infections and Deaths—Accumulating Evidence from Epidemiological and Intervention Studies Calls for Immediate Action |
| Summary of epidemiological and intervention studies for vitamin D supplementation. Author concludes that despite limitations, evidence strongly supports widespread supplementation, in particular for high-risk populations, as well as high-.. | ||||
1/22 |
Late | et al., SSRN, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3771318 (Preprint) | death, ↓64.0%, p=0.001 | Calcifediol Treatment and COVID-19-Related Outcomes |
| Cluster RCT with 930 hospitalized patients, 550 treated with calcifediol, showing significantly lower ICU admission and death with treatment. Note that the randomization in this trial is by ward. Authors report that patients were allocate.. | ||||
1/21 |
Levels | , S., Nature, doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81419-w (Peer Reviewed) | Autumn COVID-19 surge dates in Europe correlated to latitudes, not to temperature-humidity, pointing to vitamin D as contributing factor | |
| Analysis of the increase in COVID-19 cases in European countries, showing no correlation with temperature, but a significant correlation with country latitude. Since UV radiation decreases earlier for higher latitudes, this supports the t.. | ||||
1/18 |
PrEP | et al., Research Square, doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-141034/v1 (Preprint) | death, ↓30.4%, p=0.45 | The Association of 25 (OH) Vitamin D Levels and Severity and Outcome of COVID-19: A Cross-sectional Study |
| Retrospective 508 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Iran showing lower mortality with vitamin D supplementation, and an association between low vitamin D levels and disease severity, ICU admission, and increased mortality. Details of supp.. | ||||
1/14 |
Late | et al., Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu13010219 (Peer Reviewed) | death/ICU, ↓36.6%, p=0.13 | Effectiveness of In-Hospital Cholecalciferol Use on Clinical Outcomes in Comorbid COVID-19 Patients: A Hypothesis-Generating Study |
| Retrospective 91 hospitalized patients, 36 treated with high-dose cholecalciferol, showing lower combined death/ICU admission with treatment. Authors also analyze the relationship with comorbidity burden, finding that the positive effect.. | ||||
1/12 |
Levels | et al., Journal of the American College of Nutrition, doi:10.1080/07315724.2020.1856013 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓85.5%, p=0.002 | Vitamin D Deficiency and Low Serum Calcium as Predictors of Poor Prognosis in Patients with Severe COVID-19 |
| Prospective study of 120 severe cases of COVID-19 in Algeria finding low vitamin D and low calcium both associated with increased mortality. | ||||
1/11 |
Levels | et al., Aging and Disease, doi:10.14336/AD.2020.1108 (Peer Reviewed) | severe case, ↓36.2%, p<0.0001 | Metabolic Healthy Obesity, Vitamin D Status, and Risk of COVID-19 |
| UK Biobank retrospective 353,299 patients showing that vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency are associated with increased COVID-19 risk. This study also analyzes metabolic/obesity phenotypes and the combination with vitamin D status. | ||||
1/9 |
Levels | et al., Mayo Clinic Proceedings, doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2021.01.001 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓88.0%, p=0.01 | Vitamin D Status is Associated With In-hospital Mortality and Mechanical Ventilation: A Cohort of COVID-19 Hospitalized Patients |
| Retrospective 144 patients in the USA showing significantly lower mortality for vitamin D levels >=30ng/mL. | ||||
1/7 |
Levels | et al., BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health, doi:10.1136/bmjnph-2020-000151 (Peer Reviewed) | progression, ↑32.3%, p=0.20 | No evidence that vitamin D is able to prevent or affect the severity of COVID-19 in individuals with European ancestry: a Mendelian randomisation study of open data |
| Analysis of vitamin D levels and COVID-19 cases and severity based on genetic predisposition to higher vitamin D levels or lower vitamin D deficiency, finding no significant association. For some background on Mendelian randomization stu.. | ||||
1/5 |
PrEP | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2021.01.04.21249219 (Preprint) (meta analysis) | death, ↓67.5%, p=0.008 | The impact of vitamin D supplementation on mortality rate and clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis |
| Meta analysis of 4 supplementation studies, finding that vitamin D supplementation "seems to decrease the mortality rate, the severity of the disease, and serum levels of the inflammatory markers". Mortality odds ratio OR 0.264,.. | ||||
12/31 |
Levels | et al., Infectology, doi:10.22625/2072-6732-2020-12-3-21-27 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓79.4%, p=0.07 | Serum 25(oH)D level in patients with CoVID-19 |
| Retrospective 80 COVID-19 patients showing low vitamin D levels associated with severity and mortality. | ||||
12/30 |
Review | et al., Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine, doi:10.31083/j.rcm.2020.04.264 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Multifaceted highly targeted sequential multidrug treatment of early ambulatory high-risk SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19) |
| Review urging early treatment of COVID-19 with sequential multidrug treatment that has been shown to be safe and effective. Proposed treatment includes zinc, vitamin D & C, quercetin, and depending on age, comorbidities, and symptoms may .. | ||||
12/28 |
Late | et al., Research Square, doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-129238/v1 (Preprint) | death, ↓82.0%, p=0.12 | Lack of Association of Baseline 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels and Cholecalciferol Treatment With Disease Severity and Mortality in Indian Patients Hospitalized for Covid-19 |
| Prospective study of 410 hospitalized patients in India showing lower mortality and ICU admission with cholecalciferol treatment, although not statistically significant with the small number of cases. The median total dose was 60000IU. N.. | ||||
12/26 |
Late | et al., European Journal of Integrative Medicine, doi:10.1016/j.eujim.2020.101271 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓63.5%, p=0.004 | High dose vitamin D improves total serum antioxidant capacity and ICU outcome in critically ill patients - a randomized, double-blind clinical trial |
| RCT of 30 ventilated ICU patients showing lower mortality with vitamin D treatment, RR 0.36, p = 0.004. Authors do not indicate why the patients were hospitalized or if any of the patients were COVID-19 patients. 300,000 IU intramuscular .. | ||||
12/22 |
PrEP | et al., Aging, doi:10.18632/aging.202307 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓70.0%, p=0.04 | Mortality in an Italian nursing home during COVID-19 pandemic: correlation with gender, age, ADL, vitamin D supplementation, and limitations of the diagnostic tests |
| 70% lower mortality with vitamin D supplementation. Analysis of 98 PCR+ nursing home residents in Italy, mean age 90, vitamin D supplementation RR 0.30, p = 0.04. The paper provides the p value for regression but not the effect size. Trea.. | ||||
12/12 |
Levels | et al., Journal of Medical Virology, doi:10.1002/jmv.26726 (Peer Reviewed) | cases, ↓43.5%, p=0.001 | The Association Between the Level of Serum 25(OH) Vitamin D, Obesity, and underlying Diseases with the risk of Developing COVID‐19 Infection: A case‐control study of hospitalized patients in Tehran, Iran |
| Case control study of 201 patients and 201 matched controls in Iran showing vitamin D deficiency associated with COVID-19. | ||||
12/11 |
Late | et el., Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu12123799 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓79.8%, p<0.001 | High-Dose Cholecalciferol Booster Therapy is Associated with a Reduced Risk of Mortality in Patients with COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Multi-Centre Observational Study |
| 80% lower mortality with cholecalciferol booster therapy. Retrospective 986 hospitalized patients in the UK finding that cholecalciferol booster therapy, regardless of baseline serum levels, was associated with a reduced risk of mortality.. | ||||
12/10 |
News | (News) | news | Over 100 Scientists, Doctors, & Leading Authorities Call For Increased Vitamin D Use To Combat COVID-19 |
| Over 100 scientists and doctors call for efforts to increase vitamin D levels. Recommendations include reaching 75 nmol/L serum levels, 2000-4000IU daily supplementation (in the absence of testing), and measurement and treatment in hospit.. | ||||
12/9 |
Levels | et al., Hellenic Journal of Cardiology, doi:10.1016/j.hjc.2020.11.011 (Peer Reviewed) | Vitamin D deficiency correlates with a reduced number of natural killer cells in intensive care unit (ICU) and non-ICU patients with COVID-19 pneumonia | |
| Observational study of 29 ICU patients and 10 non-ICU patients showing vitamin D levels positively correlated with cytotoxic T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, NK-T cells, and regulatory T cells. | ||||
12/9 |
Levels | et al., Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu12123773 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓90.9%, p=0.04 | Low 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels on Admission to the Intensive Care Unit May Predispose COVID-19 Pneumonia Patients to a Higher 28-Day Mortality Risk: A Pilot Study on a Greek ICU Cohort |
| Small prospective study of 30 ICU patients, showing higher mortality risk for low vitamin D levels. When divided into two groups at the median level, there was 5 of 15 deaths for the low vitamin D group compared to 0 of 15 in the high vit.. | ||||
12/5 |
Levels | et al., Cardiovascular Diabetology, doi:10.1186/s12933-020-01184-4 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓85.7%, p=0.007 | Diabetes and Covid-19 among hospitalized patients in Saudi Arabia: a single-centre retrospective study |
| Retrospective 439 diabetic hospitalized patients in Saudi Arabia showing lower mortality with vitamin D >12.5 nmol/L, adjusted hazard ratio aHR 0.14, p = 0.007. | ||||
12/4 |
Levels | el al., Nutrition, doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.111106 (Peer Reviewed) | cases, ↓78.4%, p<0.001 | Increased risk for Covid-19 in patients with Vitamin D deficiency |
| Retrospective database analysis showing patients with vitamin D deficiency were 4.6 times more likely to be COVID-19 positive, p<0.001. | ||||
11/30 |
PrEP | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.11.27.20239087 (Preprint) | cases, ↓8.0%, p=0.0007 | Dietary supplements during the COVID-19 pandemic: insights from 1.4M users of the COVID Symptom Study app - a longitudinal app-based community survey |
| Survey analysis of dietary supplements showing vitamin D usage associated with lower incidence of COVID-19. These results are for PCR+ cases only, they do not reflect potential benefits of vitamin D for reducing the severity of cases. A.. | ||||
11/25 |
Levels | et al., American Journal of Clinical Pathology, doi:10.1093/ajcp/aqaa252 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓70.1%, p=0.02 | Serum 25(OH)D Level on Hospital Admission Associated With COVID-19 Stage and Mortality |
| Retrospective 186 hospitalized patients in Belgium showing that 59% of patients were vitamin D deficient, and that non-vitamin D deficient patients had significantly lower mortality risk, RR 0.26, p = 0.015. | ||||
11/19 |
Levels | et al., Nature, doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77093-z (Peer Reviewed) | ICU, ↓95.4%, p<0.0001 | Analysis of vitamin D level among asymptomatic and critically ill COVID-19 patients and its correlation with inflammatory markers |
| Prospective study of 91 asymptomatic and 63 ICU patients showing significantly higher vitamin D deficiency in the ICU patients (97% vs. 33%). | ||||
11/17 |
Late | et al., JAMA, doi:10.1001/jama.2020.26848 (preprint 11/17) (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↑48.7%, p=0.43 | Effect of a Single High Dose of Vitamin D3 on Hospital Length of Stay in Patients With Moderate to Severe COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial |
| Very late stage (mean 10 days from symptom onset, 90% on oxygen at baseline) vitamin D supplementation RCT not showing significant differences. Ethnicity was poorly matched between arms, and diabetes was 41% in the treatment arm vs. 29% .. | ||||
11/13 |
Levels | et al., The Journal of Nutrition, doi:10.1093/jn/nxaa332 (Peer Reviewed) | progression, ↓63.0%, p=0.01 | Vitamin D Deficiency Is Inversely Associated with COVID-19 Incidence and Disease Severity in Chinese People |
| Retrospective 335 patients in China compared to 560 matched controls showing significanlty lower risk of severe COVID-19 with vitamin D sufficiency (>=30 nmol/L) OR 0.37, p = 0.014. | ||||
11/12 |
Meta | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.11.08.20222638 (Preprint) | Mathematical analysis of Córdoba calcifediol trial suggests strong role for Vitamin D in reducing ICU admissions of hospitalized COVID-19 patients | |
| Analysis of Castillo et al. confirming efficacy of calcifediol treatment. Authors find that issues related to imperfect blinding and comorbidities can not explain the result found. See [1] for a response to issues raised on this analysis. | ||||
11/12 |
Late | et al., Postgraduate Medical Journal, doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139065 (Peer Reviewed) | viral+, ↓52.6%, p=0.02 | Short term, high-dose vitamin D supplementation for COVID-19 disease: a randomised, placebo-controlled, study (SHADE study) |
| 53% reduction in PCR+ with high-dose cholecalciferol supplementation. RCT with 16 treatment patients and 24 control patients. Relative risk of PCR+ at 2 weeks with treatment, RR 0.47, p=0.18 25(OH)D levels at day 14 were 52 ng/ml vs. 15.. | ||||
11/9 |
Levels | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.11.07.20227512 (Preprint) | int./death, ↑0.4%, p=1.00 | Vitamin D - contrary to vitamin K - does not associate with clinical outcome in hospitalized COVID-19 patients |
| Small retrospective study of 135 patients not finding a significant difference in vitamin D status. Patients with good outcomes had a median of 45.0 nmol/L versus 37.7 nmol/L for bad outcomes, p = 0.85. Authors found that vitamin D suffi.. | ||||
11/2 |
PrEP | et al., Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu12113377 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓93.0%, p=0.02 | Vitamin D Supplementation Associated to Better Survival in Hospitalized Frail Elderly COVID-19 Patients: The GERIA-COVID Quasi-Experimental Study |
| Retrospective study finding that regular bolus vitamin D supplementation was associated with less severe COVID-19 and better survival in frail elderly. For those receiving regular supplementation: Adjusted mortality hazard ratio with su.. | ||||
10/31 |
Late | et al., American Journal of Therapeutics, doi:10.1097/MJT.0000000000001222 (Peer Reviewed) | Vitamin D Supplementation in COVID-19 Patients: A Clinical Case Series | |
| Small case study of 4 vitamin D deficient patients with 2 patients treated with cholecalciferol 1000 IU daily and two patients treated with ergocalciferol 50,000 IU daily for 5 days (high dose), showing that patients receiving high dose t.. | ||||
10/31 |
Review | et al., Nutrients 2020, 12:11, 3361, doi:10.3390/nu12113361 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Evidence Regarding Vitamin D and Risk of COVID-19 and Its Severity |
| Review of vitamin D and COVID-19 concluding that the evidence seems strong enough that people and physicians can use or recommend vitamin D supplements to prevent or treat COVID-19 in light of their safety and wide therapeutic window. | ||||
10/30 |
Levels | et al., European Journal of Nutrition, doi:10.1007/s00394-020-02411-0 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓75.9%, p=0.04 | Possible association of vitamin D status with lung involvement and outcome in patients with COVID-19: a retrospective study |
| Retrospective 73 hospitalized patients showing the probability of death in patients with vitamin D deficiency (< 25ng/mL) was 34.6% compared with 6.4% in patients with sufficient vitamin D levels. | ||||
10/27 |
Levels | et al., The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa733 (Peer Reviewed) | death/ICU, ↓83.0%, p<0.0001 | Vitamin D Status in Hospitalized Patients with SARS-CoV-2 Infection |
| Retrospective 216 COVID-19 patients and 197 population controls. Vitamin D deficiency was found in 82.2% of COVID-19 cases and 47.2% of population-based controls (P < .0001). Authors note: "We did not find any relationship between .. | ||||
10/21 |
N/A | et al., Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2020.10.005 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Is the shielding effect of cholecalciferol in SARS CoV-2 infection dependable? An evidence based unraveling |
| Review of vitamin D for COVID-19, concluding that the available evidence is very suggestive of protective and preventive effect of vitamin D. Authors note that strict lockdown (longer time indoors and home quarantine) may increase the r.. | ||||
10/13 |
Early, PrEP | et al., The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105771 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓89.0%, p=0.002 | Vitamin D and survival in COVID-19 patients: A quasi-experimental study |
| Vitamin D3 supplementation during or just before COVID-19 was associated with 68% lower mortality and less severe COVID-19 in frail elderly. Retrospective 66 French nursing home residents, mean age 87.7, 9 control patients, and 57 that r.. | ||||
10/13 |
Levels | et al., Journal of the American College of Nutrition, doi:10.1080/07315724.2020.182600 (Peer Reviewed) | hosp., ↓93.4%, p=0.03 | Does Serum Vitamin D Level Affect COVID-19 Infection and Its Severity? A Case-Control Study |
| Case control study in China comparing 62 patients with 80 healthy controls showing vitamin D deficiency is a risk factor for COVID-19, especially for severe/critical cases. | ||||
10/6 |
Levels | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.10.05.20206706 (Preprint) | seropositive, ↓28.8%, p=0.003 | Vitamin D status and seroconversion for COVID-19 in UK healthcare workers who isolated for COVID-19 like symptoms during the 2020 pandemic |
| Analysis of vitamin D status and anti-SARS-Cov-2 antibodies in UK healthcare workers finding that Vitamin D deficiency is a risk factor for COVID-19 seroconversion. | ||||
10/5 |
Levels | et al., Pediatric Pulmonology, doi:10.1002/ppul.25106 (Peer Reviewed) | severe case, ↓73.4%, p=1.00 | Is vitamin D deficiency a risk factor for COVID‐19 in children? |
| Retrospective 40 hospitalized pediatric COVID-19 patients and 45 healthy controls showing significantly lower vitamin D levels for COVID-19 patients (13.1 vs. 34.8µg/L), and that, within the hospitalized patients, there was more moderate .. | ||||
10/5 |
Levels | et al., J. Nutr. Health Aging, doi:10.1007/s12603-020-1479-0 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓82.5%, p<0.0001 | Impact of Serum 25(OH) Vitamin D Level on Mortality in Patients with COVID-19 in Turkey |
| Retrospective 149 COVID-19 patients, 69.1% with vitamin D deficiency, showing lower vitamin D levels associated with higher mortality. | ||||
9/30 |
Levels | el al., Tuberk Toraks, doi:10.5578/tt.70027 (Peer Reviewed) | Evaluation of the relationship of serum vitamin D levels in COVID-19 patients with clinical course and prognosis | |
| Prospective study of 88 hospitalized PCR+ COVID-19 patients and 20 asymptomatic PCR- medical personnel, showing lower vitamin D levels correlated with COVID-19 and with the development of ARDS and MAS. | ||||
9/25 |
Levels | et al., PLOS One, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0239799 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓51.7%, p=0.08 | Vitamin D sufficiency, a serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D at least 30 ng/mL reduced risk for adverse clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19 infection |
| Retrospective 235 hospitalized patients showing a significant association between vitamin D sufficiency and reduction in clinical severity. For patients over 40, mortality was 9.7% with 25(OH)D levels >30ng/mL, versus 20% for <30ng/mL. .. | ||||
9/17 |
Levels | et al., PLOS One, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0239252 (Peer Reviewed) | cases, ↓53.0%, p<0.001 | SARS-CoV-2 positivity rates associated with circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels |
| Analysis of 191,779 patients in the US finding COVID-19 positivity strongly and inversely associated with circulating 25(OH)D levels. The relationship persists across latitudes, races/ethnicities, gender, and age ranges. COVID-19 adjuste.. | ||||
9/10 |
Levels | et al., Nutrients 2020, 12:9, 2757, doi:10.3390/nu12092757 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓93.2%, p=0.001 | Vitamin D Deficiency and Outcome of COVID-19 Patients |
| Observational study 185 patients in Germany shows an association between vitamin D status and severity and mortality. Adjusted hazard ratio of vitamin D sufficiency for combined mechanical ventilation and death was HR 0.16, p < 0.001, and.. | ||||
9/10 |
Levels | et al., medRxiv, doi:https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.09.04.20188268v1 (Preprint) | cases, ↓21.3%, p<0.001 | The link between vitamin D deficiency and Covid-19 in a large population |
| Large observational population study showing a strong association between vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19. | ||||
9/3 |
Levels | et al., JAMA network open, 3:9, doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19722 (Peer Reviewed) | cases, ↓43.5%, p=0.02 | Association of Vitamin D Status and Other Clinical Characteristics With COVID-19 Test Results |
| Retrospective 489 patients showing 44% lower risk for COVID-19 with vitamin D sufficiency, relative risk RR = 0.56, p = 0.02. | ||||
8/29 |
Late | et al., Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 203, October 2020, doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105751 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓85.4%, p=0.11 | Effect of calcifediol treatment and best available therapy versus best available therapy on intensive care unit admission and mortality among patients hospitalized for COVID-19: A pilot randomized clinical study |
| RCT on calcifediol (25-hydroxyvitamin D) treatment for hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing significantly reduced intensive care unit admissions. All patients received standard care including HCQ+AZ. Significantly lower ICU admission .. | ||||
8/27 |
Levels | et al., Postgraduate Medical Journal, doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-138712 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓28.6%, p=0.50 | Vitamin D status and outcomes for hospitalised older patients with COVID-19 |
| Prospective study of 105 hospitalized patients, showing lower vitamin D levels in the COVID-19 positive group (27.0 nmol/L vs 52.0 nmol/L, p=0.0008), and non-statistically significant higher mortality with vitamin D deficiency. | ||||
8/26 |
Early | et al., Journal of Contemporary Medical Sciences, 10.22317/jcms.v6i4.822 (Peer Reviewed) | Suggested role of Vitamin D supplementation in COVID-19 severity | |
| Brief report noting that there was a dramatic and complete resolution of ICU admissions after adding routine vitamin D supplementation to standard of care. | ||||
8/26 |
Levels | et al., Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research and Reviews, 14:4, 561–565, doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.050 (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓17.4%, p=0.31 | Vitamin D concentrations and COVID-19 infection in UK Biobank |
| Database analysis of 341,484 patients in the UK with 656 hospitalized confirmed COVID-19 patients and 203 deaths, not showing a statistically significant difference after adjustment. Since adjustment factors may be correlated with vitamin.. | ||||
8/15 |
Early | et al., Biomedical Research, 31:5 (Peer Reviewed) | viral+, ↓97.2%, p<0.0001 | Effects of Ivermectin-azithromycin-cholecalciferol combined therapy on COVID-19 infected patients: A proof of concept study |
| Small study with 28 patients treated with ivermectin + AZ + cholecalciferol and 7 control patients. All treated patients were PCR- at day 10 while all control patients remained PCR+. The mean duration of symptoms was 3 days in the treatm.. | ||||
8/9 |
Levels | et al., J. Endocrinol. Invest., 2020, Aug 9, 1-7, doi:10.1007/s40618-020-01370-x (Peer Reviewed) | death, ↓70.6%, p=0.05 | Vitamin D deficiency as a predictor of poor prognosis in patients with acute respiratory failure due to COVID-19 |
| Retrospective study 42 patients with acute respiratory failure, 81% with low vitamin D levels. After 10 days, patients with severe vitamin D deficiency had a 50% probability of dying, while those with vitamin D ≥ 10 ng/mL had a 5% mortal.. | ||||
7/23 |
Levels | et al., The FEBS Journal, doi:doi.org/10.1111/febs.15495 (Peer Reviewed) | hosp., ↓46.4%, p=0.06 | Low plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID‐19 infection: an Israeli population‐based study |
| Analysis of 7,807 patients finding that low vitamin D levels are correlated with increased risk of cases and hospitalization. Adjusted odds ratio OR for sufficient vitamin D level for cases 0.69, p < 0.001, and for hospitalization 0.51, p.. | ||||
7/23 |
Levels | et al., Spat. Spatiotemporal Epidemiol, doi:10.1016/j.sste.2020.100362 (Peer Reviewed) | Covid-19 and vit-d: Disease mortality negatively correlates with sunlight exposure | |
| Analysis of COVID-19 mortality rate and sunlight exposure finding a correlation that suggests a protective effect of sunlight exposure. In continental metropolitan France, average annual sunlight hours were found to be significantly cor.. | ||||
7/17 |
PrEP | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.07.14.20152728 (Peer Reviewed) (meta analysis) | meta-analysis | Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of aggregate data from randomised controlled trials |
| Meta analysis of 40 RCTs showing that vitamin D supplementation is safe and reduced risk of acute respiratory infections, odds ratio OR 0.89 [0.81-0.98]. | ||||
6/30 |
Levels | et al., Irish Medical Journal, 113:5, 84 (Peer Reviewed) | ventilation, ↓69.0%, p=0.03 | Vitamin D Deficiency and ARDS after SARS-CoV-2 Infection |
| Analysis of 33 hospitalized COVID-19 patients with respiratory failure requiring FiO2 greater than 0.4. Intubation hazard ratio for vitamin D sufficiency HR 0.31, p = 0.03. | ||||
6/30 |
Levels | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.06.21.20136903 (Peer Reviewed) | ICU, ↓52.0%, p=0.02 | Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) levels in patients hospitalised with COVID-19 are associated with greater disease severity: results of a local audit of practice |
| Retrospective analysis 134 hospitalized patients. 19% of ICU patients had 25(OH)D levels > 50 nmol/L vs. 39.1% of non-ICU patients, p=0.02 | ||||
6/22 |
In Vitro | et al., bioRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.06.21.162396 (Preprint) (In Vitro) | in vitro | Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, is a promising candidate for COVID-19 prophylaxis |
| In Vitro study showing that the active form of Vitamin D, calcitriol, exhibits significant potent activity against SARS-CoV-2. | ||||
6/19 |
Levels | et al., J. Public Health, doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdaa095 (Peer Reviewed) | Greater risk of severe COVID-19 in Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic populations is not explained by cardiometabolic, socioeconomic or behavioural factors, or by 25(OH)-vitamin D status: study of 1326 cases from the UK Biobank | |
| UK Biobank retrospective not finding a significant association between vitamin D levels and the risk of PCR+ after adjustment. Since adjustment factors may be correlated with vitamin D deficiency, the extent of any causal contribution of .. | ||||
6/14 |
Levels | et al., BMJ Nutr. Prev. Health, doi:10.1136/bmjnph-2020-000110 (Peer Reviewed) | COVID-19 mortality increases with northerly latitude after adjustment for age suggesting a link with ultraviolet and vitamin D | |
| Analysis of COVID-19 mortality and latitude as of May 18, 2020, showing that latitude was significantly associated with mortality (p=0.031), with an estimated 4.4% [0.4%-8.5%] increase in mortality for each 1° further north. | ||||
6/10 |
Late | et al., Nutrition, doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.111017 (Peer Reviewed) | oxygen, ↓80.5%, p=0.04 | Cohort study to evaluate the effect of combination Vitamin D, Magnesium and Vitamin B12 (DMB) on progression to severe outcome in older COVID-19 patients |
| Observational study of 43 patients >= 50 years old, with 17 patients receiving vitamin D, magnesium, and vitamin B12 (DMB); and 26 control patients, showing a significantly lower need for oxygen therapy and ICU admission with treatment. .. | ||||
5/9 |
Levels | et al., Nutrients, 12:5, 1–7, doi:10.3390/nu12051359 (Peer Reviewed) | 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are lower in patients with positive PCR for SARS-CoV-2 | |
| Retrospective 107 patients in Switzerland showing lower vitamin D levels (11.1 ng/mL) in PCR positive patients compared with negative patients (24.6 ng/mL), p = 0.004. | ||||
4/28 |
Levels | et al., Med Drug Discov., doi:10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100041 (Preprint) | Does vitamin D status impact mortality from SARS-CoV-2 infection? | |
| Analysis of case fatality rates showing that the CFR was significantly greater for Northern states (>40° latitude) compared to Southern States (6.0% vs. 3.5%, p < 0 .001), although there were some exceptions with individual states. | ||||
4/28 |
Levels | et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.04.24.20075838 (Preprint) | ICU, ↓45.0%, p=0.29 | Vitamin D Insufficiency is Prevalent in Severe COVID-19 |
| Analysis of 20 hospitalized COVID-19 patients, 13 requiring ICU admission. 84.6% of the ICU patients had low vitamin D levels versus 57.1% of the non-ICU patients. | ||||
4/2 |
Review | et al., Nutrients, 12:4, 988, doi:10.3390/nu12040988 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths |
| Review of the evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce COVID-19 risk. | ||||
2019 |
Review | et al., The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.12.010 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Daily oral dosing of vitamin D3 using 5000 TO 50,000 international units a day in long-term hospitalized patients: Insights from a seven year experience |
| Report on the long-term use of vitamin D in hospitalized patients with daily dosing from 5,000 to 50,000IU over 7 years. There were no cases of hypercalcemia or any adverse events related to vitamin D supplementation. Authors conclude tha.. | ||||
2017 |
N/A | et al., BMJ 2017, 356, doi:10.1136/bmj.i6583 (Peer Reviewed) (meta analysis) | cases, ↓7.3%, p=0.003 | Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data |
| Meta analysis of 25 RCTs showing vitamin D supplementation was safe and it protected against acute respiratory tract infection overall. Patients who were very vitamin D deficient and those not receiving bolus doses experienced the most be.. | ||||
2013 |
N/A | et al., PLoS One, 2013, 8:6, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065835 (Peer Reviewed) (meta analysis) | meta-analysis | Vitamin D and Respiratory Tract Infections: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |
| Meta analysis of 11 placebo-controlled studies of 5660 patients. Vitamin D showed a protective effect against RTI (OR 0.64 [0.49-0.84]). The protective effect was larger in studies using once-daily dosing compared to bolus doses (OR = 0... | ||||
2012 |
N/A | et al., J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol., 2014, 144PA, 138–145, doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.11.003 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Is vitamin D deficiency a major global public health problem? |
| Review showing vitamin D deficiency is common worldwide in all age groups. | ||||
2012 |
Related | et al., Endocr Pract., 2012, 18:6, 914–923, doi:10.4158/EP12072.OR (Peer Reviewed) (Related) | Prevalence and predictors of vitamin D deficiency in healthy adults | |
| Study of 634 healthy volunteers showing 64% had 25(OH)D ≤ 30 ng/mL. Gender, ethnicity, and multivitamin use were significantly associated with 25(OH)D levels. | ||||
2010 |
PrEP | et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 91:5, 1255-60, doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.29094 (Peer Reviewed) | Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation to prevent seasonal influenza A in schoolchildren | |
| RCT for vitamin D supplementation and seasonal influenza A in schoolchildren, showing 10.8% incidence in children in the vitamin D3 group compared with 18.6% in the placebo group, relative risk RR 0.58 [0.34-0.99], p = 0.04. The reductio.. | ||||
2006 |
N/A | et al., Epidemiol Infect., 2006, 134:6. 1129-40, doi:10.1017/S0950268806007175 (Review) (Peer Reviewed) | review | Epidemic influenza and vitamin D |
| Review article on the mechanisms of action and seasonality of vitamin D levels, concluding that varying vitamin D levels may be the reason for the seasonality of epidemic influenza. | ||||
For search methods, inclusion criteria, effect extraction
criteria (more serious outcomes have priority), PRISMA answers, and
statistical methods see vdmeta.com. In
Vitro, Ex Vivo, Meta, Theory, Safety, Review, and News items are not included
in the study count. There is a total of
86 items.
Studies with preprints and journal versions are listed under the earlier preprint date.