Page 22
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that a grave found in the north-west England was that of King Raedwald. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory stated in the reading passage is that a pair of spoons found in the site was dated to A.D. 620 by a dating technique which is consistent with the year of his death in A.D.624. Conversely, the professor contends that another dating technology estimated the age of the spoons as 25 years after his death. In addition, according to another historical record, the timing of his death is not co Repenomamus ect. These would contradict the argument of the reading.
The second theory of the reading passage is that two names of Catholic missionaries engraved on the spoons indicate that the spoons were given to the king as a baptismal gift as the king is known to have converted to Catholic. Contrarily, the professor asserts that the spoons were given to many converts and not necessarily to the king. The professor further states that the spoons must have been funeral gifts and the owners might not be catholic.
The third theory stated in the reading is that the grave is very luxurious, and thus must have belonged to the king. On the other hand, the professor claims that being luxurious does not automatically suggests that the grave belonged to the king; it could belong to any rich noble man in that period. In addition, there is only a few graves in that period but they were damage by thieves; therefore, it is difficult to compare how luxurious this specific grave was compared to others.
―――――――――――――――
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that a grave found in the north-west England was that of King Raedwald. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that the grave was not necessarily that of the king.
The first theory identified in the reading passage is that a pair of spoons found in the site was dated to A.D. 620 by a dating technique which is consistent with the year of his death in A.D.624. Conversely, the professor contends that another dating technology estimated the age of the spoons as 25 years after his death. In addition, according to another historical record, the timing of his death is not correct. These would contradict the argument of the reading.
The second theory of the reading passage is that two names of Catholic missionaries engraved on the spoons indicate that the spoons were given to the king as a baptismal gift as the king is known to have converted to Catholic. Contrarily, the professor asserts that the spoons were given to many converts and not necessarily to the king. The professor further states that the spoons must have been funeral gifts and the owners might not be catholic.
The third theory stated in the reading is that the grave is very luxurious, and thus must have belonged to the king. On the other hand, the professor claims that being luxurious does not automatically suggests that the grave belonged to the king; it could belong to any rich noble man in that period. In addition, there is only a few graves from that period as most graves were damaged by thieves; therefore, it is difficult to compare how luxurious this specific grave was compared to others.
------------------------------------------
Page EAS
EAS stands for Essential Air Service that is a U.S. government subsidy program to build airports in rural areas so that people living in remote areas have the same access to commercial airports as those living in urban areas. The reading passage presents three disadvantages of this program. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first benefit of the EAS stated in the reading is that those living in rural areas can have the same accessibility to commercial airports as those residing in cities. Conversely, the professor contends that the time those who live in a rural area spend to get to a commercial airport in a city would be the same as that of people in the city to get to the airport, because those living in the remote area could drive to the airport directly. So, it is not logical to build airports in rural communities.
The second advantage mentioned in the reading is that the EAS would boost local economy of rural areas as more tourists visit the areas. On the contrary, the professor asserts that it is more cost effective for the government to spend money on urban areas as more people migrate from rural areas to urban regions today.
The third merit addressed in the reading is that purchasing materials related to a new local airport such as small airplanes, fuel, spare parts, and construction materials for the airport would give economical stimulant to the local area. On the other hand, the professor claims that keeping small airplanes flying would be prohibitively expensive. For example, as many airplane manufacturers stopped producing small airplanes, the cost of spare parts is very expensive, which makes the replacement and maintenance cost of the airplanes extremely high. Therefore, the cost would be too high to justify this program.
--------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
The reading passage presents three disadvantages related to introducing the gray wolf into the wilds of the America West. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated
The first demerit stated in the reading passage is that the wolves would bring down the population of elk to the brink of extinction, which would disturb the ecological balance. Conversely, the professor asserts that there are too many elk presently, so the introduction of the wolves would reduce the elk population to an appropriate level, resulting in a more stabilized ecological balance.
The second negative effect mentioned in the reading is that the wolves would kill livestock owned by local farmers, giving a financial damage to the local farmers. On the other hand, the professor claims that the financial loss of the farmers can be compensated by providing the affected farmers with the government subsidies. The professor says bringing the wolves to the area would not be detrimental to local economies.
The third demerit explained in the reading is that the public is concerned about being attacked by the wolves as in some states children have been attacked and a few were killed. On the other hand, the professor contends that stories about wolves killing people are mere superstitions and old ideas and created fictitiously by those who do not know about the wolves. The professor states that wolves only attack when threatened by humans.
――――――――――――――――――
Page 51
The reading passage presents three theories related to the formation of the Gambustsev Mountains in Antarctica However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory given in the reading passage is that the mountains were formed at hot spots where repeated volcanic eruptions over millions of years accumulated molten rocks to form the mountain range. Conversely, the professor asserts that no hot spots have been discovered in the vicinity of the mountains. The professor says that until proven by solid evidence, this theory is untenable.
The second theory stated in the reading is that moving tectonic plates over millions of years created the mountains. On the contrary, the professor contends that the peaks of the mountains are too sharp according to sonar imaging data. The professor says that if the range was formed by tectonic plates colliding each other, the profile of the mountains are supposed to be much gentler.
The third theory given in the reading is that large glaciers created the mountain range over 100 million years ago. Contrariwise, the professor claims that glaciers are incapable of creating such high mountains as the Gambustsev Mountains. She further states that research on the Gambustsev Mountains has started recently, so information on how the mountains were formed has been rather limited and fragmental.
―――――――――――――――――――
Page 61
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that early animals were bigger than they are today. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory given in the reading is that the early earth had more oxygen, which facilitated the growth of animals. Conversely, the professor asserts that the earth in ancient times actually had a lower oxygen content in the atmosphere due to poisonous gases released by volcanic eruptions.
The second theory stated in the reading passage is that abundant plants on the early earth provided animals with enough nutrients to support their growth. Contrarily, the professor contends that the earth at that time had plenty of plants, but those plants did not have much nutrients according to some evidence from fossils. The professor clams that carbon monoxide gases required for the growth of plants were contaminated.
The third theory mentioned in the reading is that warm climates helped the growth of animals as it allowed animals to use less energy to keep them warm. Contrariwise, the professor claims that small people and small animals are found in warm climates today. In addition, he maintains that large bodies in warm climates are not advantageous with respect to releasing body heat.
――――――――――――――――――
Page 71
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that a large number of dead birds at a town in Arkansas every New Year’s Eve were caused by fireworks. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that the birds were actually killed by fireworks.
The first theory of the reading is that a large number of dead birds fell from the sky at and around the time of the fireworks. Conversely, the professor asserts that there were dead birds found in both inside and outside of the town, where no fireworks took place.
The second theory stated in the reading is that the dead birds were neither poisoned nor killed and that their external injuries were consistent with those incurred by fireworks. Contrarily, the professor claims that the injuries could have been caused by other incidents like sudden air turbulence that slammed the birds into the ground.
The third theory stated in the reading is that most of the dead birds were red-winged black birds. The reading states that this species has poor night vision and when startled by the fireworks, they were forced to fly in complete darkness and shot by fireworks. Contrariwise, the professor claims that this particular bird species is the most common in Arkansas and it is only natural that most of the dead birds belonged to this species. The professor further states that the real cause of when and how the birds were killed remains a mystery.
―――――――――――――――――
Page 81
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that the idea of introducing tamarisk leaf beetles to control the number of tamarisk trees and thus protect other trees like willows is not feasible However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that this idea actually is very effective in controlling the population of tamarisk trees and maintaining the ecological balance.
The first theory stated in the reading passage is that the beetles would eat other trees in addition to tamarisk trees. Conversely, the professor says that the beetles exclusively prey on tamarisk trees and do not feed on other trees. He states that the beetles eat eighty percent of tamarisk trees and this would help control the ecological balance.
The second theory mentioned in the reading is that the beetles, after eating out tamarisk trees, would feed on willow trees as well. On the contrary, the professor states that willow trees grow and reproduce very quickly after being eaten by the beetles, and as a result, willow trees will not be eradicated.
The third theory cited in the reading is that willow flycatchers would not be able to survive because they cannot create their nests once tamarisk trees are gone. On the other hand, the professor asserts that the birds can still create nests in willow trees even if all tamarisk trees are eliminated. He states that willow trees provide the birds with more protection because they are tall and protect the nests of the birds.
――――――――――――――――
Page 91
The use of herbicides to reduce the number of milkweed may also negatively affect monarch butterflies that feed on milkweed. The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that the use of herbicides should not be banned. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first reason stated in the reading is that the population of the butterflies has been unchanged. While in some areas the population has been reduced, in other areas it has shown an upward trend. The total number of the butterflies has been unchanged. Conversely, the professor asserts that the butterflies migrate to a breeding spot in Mexico and when biologists counted the number, the number has been significantly diminished. Thus, the use of herbicide should be stopped.
The second reason stated in the reading passage is that the number of milkweeds has been unchanged because they spread seeds andand grow rapidly in non-farming wild areas and can maintain their populations. On the other hand, the professor contends that lands suitable for plant growing in America has been reduced by urban sprawl, thus the number of milkweeds to support the butterflies has been reduced accordingly.
The third reason presented in the reading is that people become emotional when they look at beautiful butterflies and they want to protect them by banning herbicides. However, such emotional reasons should not be used to justify the use of herbicides. On the other hand, the professor says that based on scientific data showing the decline in both milkweed and butterfly populations, it is clear that the use of the herbicides should be stopped.
―――――――――――――――
Page 101
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that the negatives of Yosemite landscapes were taken by Ansel Adams. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that they are actually the negatives of Ansel Adams.
The first theory stated in the reading is that one of the photos depicting a famous pine tree in the Yosemite Park is identical to one in a book of Mr. Adams. Conversely, the professor claims that a large number of tourists who visited Yosemite National Park took many pictures of the same pine tree, which makes the reading’s theory pretty unconvincing.
The second theory submitted in the reading is that hand writings on the envelope containing the negatives are Virginia Adams’, wife of Mr. Adams, suggesting that the negatives are Mr. Adam’s. On the contrary, the professor contends that two names of Yosemite landmarks were misspelled. Mrs. Adam was a highly educated lady who were very familiar with the Yosemite National Park would not make such simple mistakes.
The third theory presented in the reading is that the negatives have been exposed to a fire, which corresponds with the fact that the studio of Mr. Adams was damaged by a fire. On the other hand, the professor argues that fires in the photo studios in those days were quite common because flammable chemicals were used for developing negatives.
―――――――――――――――――――
Page 111
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that sauropod dinosaurs carried their heads horizontally. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that sauropod dinosaurs carried their heads vertically.
The first theory presented in the reading is that the bone linkage of this species allows more flexibility in moving their head horizontally. Conversely, the professor asserts that neck muscles were capable of bearing loadings of moving their heads vertically. The bone structure only cannot provide strong evidence of carrying their heads horizontally.
The second theory stated in the reading passage is that the blood pressure would be too high if they carried their heads vertically. The author sates that as they lived as long as other species, they did not suffer from high blood pressure, which means they move their heads horizontally. Contrarily, the professor contends that this animal had a strong heart to send blood to the head and that did not suffer from hypertension.
The third theory given in the reading is that sauropods carrying their heads vertically would consume more energy when feeding on leaves at high locations. Contrariwise, the professor claims that carrying their heads horizontally would consume more energy because they must compete with other species that feed on plants at lower levels. In contrast, carrying their heads vertically provided them with more food with less competition.
―――――――――――――――――――――
Page 121
The reading passage presents three causes related to the red rain in Kerla India. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory stated in the reading passage is that comets that were broken up into small pieces in the air caused the red rain phenomenon. The author states that the residents heard loud noises when the red rain occurred. Conversely, the professor asserts that the dates of comets do not match those of the red rain. The professor further states that the local people might have heard the sound of thunder which is very common before and around the time of rain.
The second theory stated in the reading is that seasonal winds carried reddish sand from North Africa or Arabia into Kerla. Contrarily, the professor casts doubt on this theory by contending that the sand from the red rain did not contain iron and phosphorous which are unique chemical components of the sands from North Africa or Arabia.
The third theory given in the reading is that reddish pores released by a type of lichen plant are the cause of the red rain. Contrariwise, the professor claims that the dates of pore releasing did not agree with those of the red rain.
―――――――――――――――――――
Page 131
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that Repenomamus robustus was a scavenger, not a predator of dinosaurs. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that this mammal was actually a predator of dinosaurs.
The first theory given in the reading is that the R. r. were as small as a cat and lacked the size and strength to attack and kill any dinosaurs. Conversely, the professor asserts that the animals could have killed baby dinosaurs. The professor says that targeting baby animals is a common tactics that are used by most predators.
The second theory presented in the reading is that Repenomamus robustus had short legs so that it could not have caught up with dinosaurs to kill them. Contrarily, the professor contends that the R. r. could have attacked dinosaurs from trees like leopards do, so that they did not have to rely on running fast to catch preys.
The third theory provided in the reading is that no teeth marks were found on the meat remains, meaning that the R. r. ate dead preys rather than killed and ate them. Contrariwise, the professor claims that they used claws in the front legs to tear meat and later swallowed small pieces. The professor further says that they might have used their back teeth to eat the meat, and as a result no teeth marks were left.
――――――――――――――――――
Page 141
The reading passage presents three benefits of an incentive program adopted by a company to foster healthy lifestyles among its employees. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first benefit of the incentive program stated in the reading is that this program would help workers quit bad habits such as smoking and obesity. Conversely, the professor asserts that most people would start smoking again after a while and gain back lost weight, so the actual benefits are not long lasting.
The second benefit mentioned in the reading passage is that when employees lead healthy lifestyles, the company pays a part of insurance payment and provides them with additional vacation time. Contrarily, the professor contends that it is not fair to reward only those who have lost weight, because genetically fat people would become unhealthy by losing weight. In addition, it is difficult for the company to reduce vacation time of those who did not lead healthy lifestyles, because they have their kids and families.
The third benefit explained in the reading passage is that healthy workers bring more benefits to the company because healthy workers work more efficiently, are less frequently absent, and help reduce health related costs of the company. Contrariwise, the professor claims that workers change jobs every few years, so that the company would not receive such benefits as expected. Besides, workers would adapt to the new company culture and the benefits of being healthy might not be permanent.
―――――――――――――――――――
Page 151
The reading passage presents three benefits of higher taxes on cigarettes and unhealthy food. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first benefit of this scheme given in the reading passage is that higher taxes on cigarettes and unhealthy food would reduce the consumption of such commodities, leading to better health of the public. Conversely, the professor asserts that higher taxes would not prevent the public from consuming such items. Higher taxes on food, for example, would force people to purchase lower priced food that are typically lower quality food, detrimental to the health of consumers.
The second benefit advocated in the reading is that both smokers and non-smokers pay the same insurance premiums, resulting in non-smokers’ paying more money to cover the medical costs of smokers, which is not fair. This scheme of adding more taxes on cigarettes would offset this inequality. Contrarily, the professor contends that this taxation scheme would not favor lower income people as they tend to eat cheaper and low quality food as a result of more taxes on food. In addition, it is not fair to increase tax on cigarettes because parks and other facilities built by the money raised by more taxes on cigarettes cannot be used by smokers as smoking is prohibited in such facilities.
The third benefit explained in the reading is that these taxes would increase the revenue of the government, so that more schools and hospitals can be built. Contrariwise, the professor claims that as people become healthier as the result of this scheme, the revenue of the government would be reduced and the government might start adding more taxes on any items that the government might assume unhealthy such as Coca-Cola and chewing gum. 317 words 17 minutes
――――――――――――――――――――
Page 160
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that the T-rex was a fast running predator. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that the T-rex was not a swift runner.
The first theory presented in the reading is that the T-rex’s teeth marks were found on a small fast running dinosaur’s remains, indicating the T-rex was running fast to catch the prey. In addition, the reading states that the T-rex was a predator that did not eat dead meat. Conversely, the professor claims that the T-rex ate dead bodies when it was hungry. The professor says that it had a highly developed smelling system, thus was capable of smelling a dead body miles away.
The second theory given in the reading passage is that the hind legs of the T-rex are similar to those of tigers, which are fast moving animals. Contrarily, the professor contends that the wall of the bones of the T-rex was very thin like that of birds and as a result, trying to run fast would end up with broken bones.
The third theory stated in the reading passage is that a relative of the T-rex, Kryptops palaios, was a fast running species based on fossil evidence of foot prints whose strides were farther apart than its normal stride. Contrariwise, the professor claims that while the head of Kryptops was small, that of the T-rex was much larger and thus it would be very difficult to run fast with its head very heavy.
――――――――――――――――――
Page 169
The reading passage presents three theories related to by whom and when a medical manuscript called Voynich Manuscript was made. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory given in the reading passage is that an unknown person with a name starting with a capital letter A made this book. Conversely, the professor contends that one cannot conclude anything from a letter A written near a figure. the professor says that it could mean anything such as the first initial, the last initial, or a part of the code of the book.
The second theory stated in the reading passage is that the book was a fake magic book of 16th century. Contrarily, the professor tells that it was not an easy task to forge a book like this; the person must have vast knowledge about the magic and alchemy. the professor claims that Buyers of this kind of book must have much knowledge to detect any counterfeit books. the professor further says that it was not worth making such a falsified book considering the time and effort required to make the book.
The third theory given in the reading is that the book was a modern fake by Mr. Voynich. Contrariwise, the professor claims that the paint and ink used for the book were consistent with those of 400 years ago in Europe.
―――――――――――――――――――
Page 179
Carved stone balls are a common archeological finding in the U.K. The reading passage presents three purposes of the balls. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory given in the reading passage is that the balls were used as weapons in war. The author says that their number and size support this theory. Conversely, the professor contends that no chippings or cracks are found on the balls, which is not natural if the balls were thrown at enemies. The professor sates that the balls seems to be well maintained to serve another purpose.
The second theory stated in the reading is that the balls were measuring tools to weigh trading materials. The author says that their sizes are similar to each other. Contrarily, the professor asserts that the balls are made of different materials such as basalt and sand and the weight of the balls differs from one material to another, though the size might be the same. Thus, he claims that the balls would not have been used as weights.
The third theory stated in the reading passage is that the balls were status symbols for noblemen. The author says that similar objects were used to represent status of noblemen in old days. Contrariwise, the professor claims that some balls are plain and simple without any decorations and they are not buried in noblemen’s tombs, which implies that the balls were not considered to be important objects for noblemen at that time.
―――――――――――――――――――
Page 189
The reading passage presents three strategies to eradicate the rootworms in North America.. However, the professor casts doubt on these strategies by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these strategies is problematic.
The first method mentioned in the reading is that pesticides are highly effective in reducing the number of the rootworms. Conversely, the professor asserts that pesticides are not 100 percent effective as some species have naturally born resistance to pesticides. In addition, they transfer this resistance to their offspring so that over time pesticides would become less and less effective.
The second tactics mentioned in the reading is that sowing corns as early as possible, so that by the time eggs hatch in warm conditions, the roots are fully grown and the rootworms have nothing to eat. On the contrary, the professor contends that corns planted early in cold regions would suffer damage from frost and snowstorms. This damage is equal to or greater than the damage by rootworms themselves.
The third method suggested in the reading is crop rotation, that is, planting soybeans and corns in alternate years, so that the rootworms would starve to death when hatched in a year of soybean planting. On the other hand, the professor claims that some eggs of the rootworms stay in the soil for two years and my hatch and damage corns with a vengeance.
――――――――――――――――――――――――
Page 199
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that dinosaurs had blood cells, blood vessels, and bone marrow, similar to those of modern animals. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory given in the reading is that red material was found in the bones of dinosaurs, which suggests that dinosaurs had blood cells. Conversely, the professor asserts that the blood red color changes to brown over time and blood millions years ago could not stay red. The red material must have been some red mineral.
The second theory presented in the reading is that iron spheres found near the bones must be the indication of hemoglobin in blood cells. On the contrary, the professor contends that the iron came from colonies of bacteria that ate dead dinosaurs.
The third theory stated in the reading passage is that collagen was found in the bones and its chemical composition was similar to that of bone marrow. On the other hand, the professor claims that collagen must be gone after 70 million years. The collagen must have derived from the skin of one of the researchers who handled the bones without using rubber gloves.
―――――――――――――――――――――
Page 209
The reading passage presents three theories as to why whales beach themselves. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory given in the reading is that whales do not attempt to commit suicides, but when they are affected by illness, they get disoriented and beach themselves. Conversely, the professor asserts that scientists could not find any signs of illness when they checked those whales beached themselves.
The second theory provided in the reading is that sonar from military ships disrupted the navigational systems of whales. On the other hand, the professor claims that the military sonar uses medium-frequency waves and they do not interfere with whales as whales use low-frequency waves for their navigation.
The third theory stated in the reading is that changes in the magnetic fields before earthquakes disrupted whales. On the contrary, the professor says that scientists could not find any records of earthquakes when and where whales beached themselves. If there had been an earthquake when a whale beached, it must have been a pure coincidence.
―――――――――――――――
USHER Strategies:
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that manatees are not intelligent. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that manatees are actually intelligent.
The first reason stated in the reading passage is that the brains of manatees lack wrinkles, which suggests low intelligence. Conversely, the professor asserts that manatees, living in the sea, developed different adaptations from land dwelling animals and that their brain structure is actually elaborate with many layers.
The second reason identified in the reading passage is that their brains are smaller than those of other animals. On the contrary, the professor contends that their brains are not small; they look smaller because their bodies are large to retain heat in cold water environment.
The third reason stated in the reading passage is that manatees are inferior to dolphins in learning and performing various tricks. On the other hand, the professor claims that it is illogical to compare large and slow manatees with dolphins that are slim and quick. Manatees are good at finding objects under the sea and migrating to places around the world; they are intelligent in different ways.
---------------------------------------
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that manatees are not intelligent. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that manatees are actually intelligent.
First, the professor points out that wrinkles of a brain does not show intelligence. He takes a comparison between monkeys and manatees to illustrate that the difference of wrinkles reflects the adaptation to the environment. This contradicts to the reading passage claiming that a lack of wrinkles of a brain should be the evidence that manatees are not intelligent animals.
Second, the professor argues that the size of a brain depends on the unique life style of manatees. Manatees live in a deep sea and they need to maintain their body temperature. Consequently, their body size has become extremely large, compared to the size of a brain. This refutes the reading passage claiming that manatees are not intelligent because their brain size is small and tiny.
Finally, the professor claims that it is useless to compare manatees with dolphins in the view of performance of tricks because manatees are big and heavy while dolphins are slim and quick. Instead, manatees have advantages of finding objectives and migrating to survive and he thinks it as evidence of intelligence of manatees. This counters the reading passage claiming that manatees are not intelligent because they cannot remember and perform tricks like other animals.
-------------------------------------------------
Day 1
（１）
The reading passage presents three causes for a mass extinction. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first cause stated in the reading passage is that the mass extinction was caused by sea level changes. The author states that low sea levels caused the deaths of marine species and land species which feed on the marine species. On the contrary, the professor asserts that sea level changes were very gradual and as a result coastal species were able to adjust to the changing sea levels. They did not die out at once.
The second cause for the deaths of many species stated in the reading passage is that the mass extinction was caused by sudden temperature drops caused by volcano eruptions that blocked the sunlight. Conversely, the professor contends that sulfur dioxide reacted with water and oxygen to form acid rain which fell on the ground. Thus, the professor states, sulfur dioxide gas did not stay in the atmosphere long enough to block the sunlight.
The third cause suggested in the reading passage is that the mass extinction was caused by the impact of large asteroids. The author says that debris created by asteroids blocked the sun light. On the other hand, the professor claims that no traces of asteroids that match the date of the mass extinction have been discovered. He further states that a big crater was found, but the date did not match that of the mass extinction.
（２）
The reading passage presents three causes for a mass extinction. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory presented in the reading is that a drop in sea levels caused the death of coastal species and eventually land species. Conversely, the professor asserts that the sea level fluctuation was rather gradual and marine species were able to adapt to the change.
The second theory stated in the reading is that a sudden drop in temperatures was responsible for a mass extinction of animals and plants. The author states that volcanic eruptions released gasses that blocked sunlight and caused the death of organisms. On the contrary, the professor contends that gasses released by volcanoes formed acid rain by reacting with water and oxygen and dropped on the ground without staying in the atmosphere long enough to block sunlight.
The third theory presented in the reading is that large asteroids hit the earth and their debris blocked sunlight, which led to a mass extinction. On the other hand, the professor claims that no traces of asteroids that collided the earth have been found and that the dates do not match that of the mass extinction. Furthermore, the professor says, a large crater was found, but the date of the crater again does not match the time when the mass extinction occurred.
（３）
The reading passage presents three causes for a mass extinction. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory given in the reading passage is that a decreased sea level caused a mass extinction of coastal species and land species. On the contrary, the professor contends that the change in sea levels was gradual, so coastal species were able to adapt to the change and did not die at once.
The second theory claimed in the reading passage is that a sudden drop in temperatures caused a mass extinction. The author says that frequent eruptions of volcanoes emitted SO2 gas that blocked sunlight, leading to the extinction of plants and animals. On the other hand, the professor asserts that SO2 gas actually reacted with water and oxygen to form acid rain which fell on the ground without staying in the atmosphere long enough to block sunlight.
The third theory given in the reading passage is that large asteroids hit the earth and created a large amount of debris that blocked sunlight and caused a mass extinction of plant and animal species. Conversely, the professor asserts that no traces of asteroids that match the date of the mass extinction have been discovered as evidence. In addition, the professor states that though a large crater was found, the date of the crater does not match that of the mass extinctions.
-------------------------------------------------------
Day 2
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that the Sacsayhuaman walls built by the Incas were not built as a protective fortress. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first reason stated in the reading passage is that the Sacsayhuaman walls were not fully continuous, but instead had many gaps which allowed outsiders to easily invade the villages inside the walls. On the contrary, the professor asserts that the gaps occurred where there were natural features such as cliffs in order to conserve building materials. The professor further adds that the Spanish conquistadores removed parts of the walls to construct other buildings.
The second reason identified in the reading passage is that Sacsayhuaman walls had a large number of windows and doors which provided invaders with easy penetration into the villages. Conversely, the professor contends that those small windows were used to visually detect enemies. In addition, the professor says that the windows were too small for invaders to enter through.
The third reason suggested in the reading passage is that there were no wells or water sources inside the walls for the Incas to survive in long battles. On the other hand, the professor argues that each invasion did not last long. She says that as the walls are located at high elevations, invaders were only able to bring a limited amount of supplies and they had to retreat after each attack that lasted for a short period. The professor claims that the Incas did not have to have wells near the walls, because after their enemies retreated, the Incas were able to go back to their villages to drink water.
----------------------------------------------------
Day 3
The reading passage presents three functions of deer antlers. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first function stated in the reading passage is that antlers function as radiators used in cars and help dissipate heat from the bodies of deer. On the contrary, the professor states that when deer become adults, most of them shed the velvet cover. The professor says that when the velvet cover is gone, antlers are only bones with no blood circulations, and no longer function as radiators. Furthermore, the professor says that some deer keep their antlers during cold winters, which means they lose more heat and makes the assertion of the reading doubtful.
The second function identified in the reading passage is that deer use their antlers to defend themselves against predators. Conversely, the professor says that female deer should also have antlers if their antlers are used for defense. Instead, the professor states that female deer use their legs to defend themselves against predators.
The third function suggested in the reading passage is that the size of antlers represents social status in herds. The author states that the deer with the largest antlers is often the leader of a herd. On the other hand, the professor maintains that bucks with smaller antlers are dominant in some herds. The professor further states that they are leaders in their herds not because they have large antlers but because they are more experienced and skilled.
―――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Day 4
(1)
The reading passage presents three theories concerning the sources of strange noises heard by the crews of Russian submarines during the Cold War. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory stated in the reading passage is that the sounds came from mating calls of killer whales. On the contrary, the professor asserts that killer whales swim near the water surface and it was not possible for the crews of submarines located approximately 200 meters deep in the water to hear the sounds. In addition, the professor says, if the sounds came from killer wales, sonar could have detected them.
The second theory stated in the reading passage is that the sounds came from giant squids. Conversely, the professor contends that the sounds were heard between the mid 1960s and the 1980s but are no longer heard today. The professor claims that as the squids are alive today, it is illogical that we do not hear them today. The professor further says the shells of squids called pen should have been detected by sonar of the submarines.
The third theory suggested in the reading passage is that the sounds came from small American submarines equipped with special stealth technology. On the other hand, the professor claims that the speed, mobility and nose level of quakers are unmatched with those of any man-made vessels. Furthermore, he says that today such capabilities may be theoretically possible, but it would be prohibitively expensive to construct such vessels.
-------------------------------------
Day 5
The reading passage presents three reasons (theories) to substantiate its argument that Sinosauropteryx did not have feathers. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that the dinosaurs had feathers.
The first theory suggested in the reading passage is that the lines on the fossils were scratches and cracks created during excavation. On the contrary, the professor asserts that no lines were found in other fossils, suggesting that lines were not created during excavation. The professor further states that skins and other parts of the body were clearly printed on the fossils, which implies that the lines must be an indication of feathers.
The second theory mentioned in the reading passage is that the lines on the fossils were formed by frills, not by feathers. Conversely, the professor contends that a special protein called beta-Carotene which exists only in feathers was detected from the fossils. Therefore, the professor states, this is a clear indication that the dinosaur had feathers, not frills.
The third theory suggested in the reading passage is that the lines were located on the back of the dinosaurs. The author says that such feathers would be useless to warm up their body or to fly. On the other hand, the professor claims that feathers were used for display to attract mates. The professor further says that feathers were very colorful and attractive to the other sex just like those feathers of peacocks.
------------------------------------
Day 6
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that coal is still an important energy source and widely used. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated (and concludes that coal is not good for humanity.
The first reason given in the reading passage is that coal is less costly than other fossil fuels due to its abundant reserve. On the contrary, the professor asserts that coal’s energy conversion efficiency is mere ten percent, much less than that of oil and natural gas. The professor says that this low energy efficiency makes coal an unsuitable energy source for the growing population of the world.
The second reason pointed out in the reading passage is that technology to burn coal for generating electricity is well established based on a long term experience. On the other hand, the professor contends that coal pollutes the environment. She claims that toxic chemicals are used to wash coal and this process releases hazardous liquid wastes that contaminate surface and subsurface water systems.
The third reason suggested in the reading passage is that coal is widely used in various manufacturing and industrial fields. Conversely, the professor claims that toxic carbon monoxide emitted from coal burning plants are damaging to our health. It causes various diseases related with our heart and central nerve system. The professor further states that technology to minimize the carbon monoxide emission from coal fired plants has not been established.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Day 7
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that European settlers caused the near-extinction of bison populations However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that the settlers did not cause the decline of the bison populations.
The first reason provided in the reading passage is that European settlers overhunted the bison. The author says that they killed a large number of bison to obtain fur. On the contrary, the professor asserts that the trend of declining population started from the west, which is not consistent with the fact that the Europeans settled in the east coast initially and moved westward.
The second reason supplied in the reading passage is that the use of long-range guns by Europeans caused the near-extinction of buffalos. The author says that the modern weapons used by the settlers were much more efficient in killing the bison than primitive bows and arrows of the Native Indians. On the other hand, the professor contends that the Native Americans were expert hunters. In addition, she states that they developed bows and arrows that were as efficient as the guns of the Europeans to hunt the bison.
The third reason identified in the reading passage is that domesticated animals brought by the settlers reduced grazing land for the bison. The author says that the settlers demarcated their newly settled lands to keep their domestic animals. Conversely, the professor claims that the competition of grazing lands did not exist because domesticated animals occupied relatively mild climate areas, whereas the bison was able to migrate to northern areas to obtain food without being affected by the domesticated animals.
-----------------------------------------------
Day 8
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that the Edmontosaurus migrated to southward in the winter to find grass to eat. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that they were not migratory.
The first theory stated in the reading passage is that the Edmontosaurus migrated to southern regions in the winter to find food. Conversely, the professor asserts that the region they roamed was much warmer than it is now. He says that they were able to obtain enough grass and there was no need to migrate to southern areas in the winter.
The second theory given in the reading passage is that the Edmontosaurus formed herds. Herd forming animals are typically migratory and the Edmontosaurus had to migrate from one area to another to eat grass. On the contrary, the professor contends that forming herds does not automatically mean that they were migratory. Furthermore, the professor says that migration gives predators more chances to attack them.
The third theory suggested in the reading passage is that the Edmontosaurus were able to stand on their hind legs and move efficiently to southern areas. On the other hand, the professor claims that only adult Edmontosaurus had this mobility and children had to stay behind or the entire herd must have moved at a slower pace.
---------------------------
Day 9
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that shooting sulfur filled rockets is not a good solution to global warming. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that launching the rockets is actually a good solution to environmental problems.
The first reason presented in the reading passage is that sulfur would be combined with water vapor to form acid rain, which is detrimental to the environment. Conversely, the professor asserts that this reaction between sulfur and water vapor will not happen because the stratosphere has only limited amount of water vapor.
The second reason provided in the reading passage is that it is very costly to launch a number of rockets. On the contrary, the professor contends that this solution is the cheapest among other solutions. For example, the professor uses an example of prohibitively expensive costs of converting conventional automobile fuels to eco-friendly fuels.
The third reason suggested in the reading passage is that the merit of this solution is limited to only one or two degrees drop in temperature. On the other hand, the professor claims that one or two degrees are significant impact on the environment. Less melted glaciers would solve many environmental problems including global warming.
------------------------------
The reading passage presents three disadvantages of shooting sulfur filled rockets to solve global warming. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated and concludes that launching sulfur filled rockets is a very effective way to solve global warming.
The first problem identified in the reading passage is that sulfur dioxide reacts with rain to form acid rain, which is another environmental hazard. Conversely, the professor contends that the amount of water vapor in the stratosphere is very limited, so acid rain will not form. In addition, she states that that rain formation takes place in another layer other than the stratosphere. Therefore, the theory of forming acid rain is not valid.
The second issue suggested in the reading is that shooting rockets is prohibitively expensive. On the other hand, the professor asserts that this is the cheapest solution among other measures addressing global warming. For example, converting automobile fuel to eco-friendly fuel requires a tremendous amount of money to develop technologies associated with this conversion.
The third disadvantage of the sulfur rockets stated in the reading is that one or two degree drop in temperature would not be so effective in solving global warming. Contrarily, the professor states that one or two degree drop in temperature has a monumental impact on the environment, since this would reduce the amount of glacier melting, thus solving various environmental problems in addition to global warming.
----------------------------
Day 10
The reading passage presents three theories to substantiate its argument that moa survived until the arrival of Europeans in New Zealand. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated (and concludes that moa did not survive until the arrival of Europeans.
The first piece of evidence stated in the reading passage is that Alice McKenzie had a sighting of a moa like animal. Conversely, the professor asserts that Alice McKenzie’s description of the moa like animal does not match with that of a real moa. For example, blue feather, legs equal to her wrist in diameter, and foot prints similar to those of hens do not match those of a real moa.
The second piece of evidence suggested in the reading passage is that clean cut marks must have been made by a steel tool brought by Europeans. On the contrary, the professor contends that the sharp cut marks could have been made by native stone tools made of obsidian or flint according to some experiments.
The third piece of evidence is that moa feathers were found together with European items. On the other hand, the professor claims that no skins or bones of moas were found at the same sites. In addition, those feathers might have been possessed by New Zealanders before the arrival of Europeans and later buried with other European items.
--------------------------------------------------------------
Day 11
The reading passage presents three theories concerning why and how Mima mounds were created. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory provided in the reading passage is that American Indians, specifically, Chinooks created the mounds for ceremonial purposes. Conversely, the professor asserts that no traces of bones or tools have been found at the sites. Furthermore, he argues that the fact the name Mima comes from the Chinook language is only a coincidence.
The second theory suggested in the reading passage is that seismic activities formed the mounds, which was later confirmed by an experiment in which an artificial earthquake was able to create mounds on sand. On the other hand, the professor contends that similar mounds are found in the areas without earthquake activities.
The third theory given in the reading passage is that pocket gophers created the mounds when they created underground homes. On the contrary, the professor claims that no evidence of gophers such as bones and fur has been found at the sites. They create their dwellings between mounds, not under mounds. In addition, they may have migrated to the mounds after the mounds had been formed.
----------------------------------------------------------------
Day 12
The reading passage presents three theories concerning how the Egyptian pyramids were constructed. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory provided in the reading passage is that ramps or inclinations were used to transport heavy stone blocks. Conversely, the professor asserts that extremely long ramps were needed to reach the apex of the pyramids. She says that there is no room near the pyramids to construct such long ramps and that there is no evidence of the long ramps. In addition, she claims that the amount of time and labor to build such ramps would have been the same as those of building the pyramids.
The second theory given in the reading passage is that wooden cranes were used to lift up heavy stones. The author states wooden cranes were originally used in an irrigation system. On the contrary, the professor contends that trees available near the Nile River were so soft that cranes made of such trees could not have withstood the weight of heavy stones.
The third theory stated in the reading passage is that stone blocks were made by pouring limestone concrete into molds. The author says that bubbles found in the blocks prove this theory. On the other hand, the professor claims that this method cannot explain the existence of granite rocks found in the pyramids and various shapes of stone blocks. The professor states that if molds were used, all the blocks should have the same dimensions. Furthermore, the professor claims that bubbles came from lime concrete used later by the Romans to repair the pyramids and that only the Romans knew how to use it.
---------------------------------------------------
Day 13
The reading passage presents three reasons why infrastructure privatization is beneficial to the state. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first reason identified in the reading passage is that the private companies attempt to provide better services to meet the needs of clients. More clients use the services and bring more tax revenue to the state. On the contrary, the professor asserts that in the long run the state can gain more profits by owning an infrastructure, for example by collecting tolls on the road.
The second reason stated in the reading passage is that private companies, being the owners of the infrastructures, monitor and maintain the infrastructures. Conversely, the professor contends that private organizations only focus on short term profits and do not spend money on repairing and maintaining the infrastructures.
The third reason mentioned in the reading passage is that private companies will introduce new technologies to compete with other companies. On the other hand, the professor claims that without competitors, private companies tend to focus on profits and will not invest on new technologies.
-------------------------------
Day 14
The reading passage presents three theories concerning the causes of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, which is global warming on earth during Paleocene and Eocene periods. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory stated in the reading passage is that the circulation of ocean currents transported heat and created the warming. Conversely, the professor asserts that we have little knowledge about the ocean circulation patterns. The professor further states that the results of computer models do not match actual data.
The second theory identified in the reading passage is that a carbon rich comet hit the Earth, and a significant amount of iridium and magnetic particles from the comet increased global temperatures. On the contrary, the professor contends that there should have been instantaneous changes to carbon levels in the atmosphere or in the ocean, but there has been no such evidence. In addition, the professor states that magnetic particles found in an earth layer were created by bacteria, not by the comet.
The third theory mentioned in the reading passage is that methane, a greenhouse gas, from decomposed microbes at the bottom of sea rose to the surface and caused global warming. On the other hand, the professor claims that the accumulation of methane was so slow that it would not have affected globe temperatures. In addition, the professor states that the methane release occurred simultaneously with global warning, suggesting that the warming was not caused by the methane.
Paleocene暁新世 ぎょうしんせい
Eocene 始新
---------------------------------------
Day 15
The reading passage presents three reasons to substantiate that life could have existed on Mars. However, the professor casts doubt on this by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that life could not have existed on Mars.
The reading passage presents life could have existed on Mars. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first theory stated in the reading passage it that organic compounds found on Mars is a proof of life on Mars. Conversely, the professor asserts that the process of using electron microscope is artificial and they may have seen something similar to organic compounds but not actually organic compounds.
The second theory mentioned in the reading passage it that organic compounds means the existence of bacteria, which is a strong evidence of life on Mars.
On the contrary, the professor contends that organic compounds could be created by other mechanisms like volcanic eruptions. It is not wise to jump to the conclusion.
The third theory pointed out in the reading passage it that bacteria could be identified by measuring the magnetic field. On the other hand, the professor claims that the magnetic fields created by bacteria are too weak to be detected.
---------------------------------
Day 16
The reading passage presents three advantages of food irradiation, which is the process to apply ionizing irradiation to food to preserve it. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of these theories is either incorrect or uncorroborated.
The first advantage stated in the reading passage is that irradiation kills ninety nine percent of pathogens. The author further states that killing pathogens will allow products to include less harmful chemicals. Conversely, the professor asserts that the remaining one percent of pathogens may develop into super-resistant pathogens, which may inflict significant detriments to our health.
The second advantage identified in the reading passage is that irradiation slows down the rate of food spoiling. The author further says that this will allow producers to be able to export food to far away countries and consumers to enjoy more selections of food. On the contrary, the professor contends that fruits or vegetables are irradiated before they are ripe, which may deteriorate the taste and quality of food. As a result, he says, consumers may eventually avoid eating irradiated food.
The third advantage mentioned in the reading passage is that irradiation does not cause chemical or physical changes to food. The author further states that irradiation results in a slight loss of nutrients, but it are almost negligible. On the other hand, the professor claims that according to a study, irradiated food products lose Vitamin C more quickly and significantly during storage time than those without irradiation.
---------------------------------------------------
Day 17
---------------------------------------------
The reading passage presents three disadvantages related to iron fertilization, which is the intentional introduction of iron to the ocean to stimulate the bloom of plankton. However, the professor casts doubt on these theories by providing three convincing rebuttals. He believes that each of the theories presented in the reading is either questionable or uncorroborated.
The first disadvantage described in the reading passage is that iron fertilization is not as effective as previously suggested. The author says that the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by plankton is less than previously estimated. Conversely, the professor asserts that previous studies mentioned in the reading only lasted for one month and as a result did not include the bloom of plankton in the second and third month. He says that long-term studies could have proven that plankton can absorb a significant amount of carbon dioxide. (He further states that one thousand kilogram of iron introduced into the ocean would be equivalent to planting one hundred trees.)
The second problem mentioned in the reading passage is that iron fertilization stimulates the growth of plankton that release toxins to the ocean. The author states that some plankton cause red tides and other toxic phenomena. On the contrary, the professor contends that iron fertilization can be stopped once global warming is taken care of. He further claims that only some species of plankton are responsible for releasing toxins to the ocean and that most species are harmless.
The third concern pointed out in the reading passage is that iron fertilization affects ecosystems negatively. The author states that the negative effects of iron fertilization far outweigh the benefits. On the other hand, the professor claims that the impact of global warming on ecosystems is more significant than that of iron fertilization itself. He says that iron fertilization is the most effective way to solve global warming, which is the most serious environmental issue of the earth. He further states that the benefits of iron fertilization outweigh its negative effects on ecosystems.
Author:Andy
プロフィール：
TOEIC 990点7回
英検1級合格二次試験100点(優秀賞）
TOEFL iBT 118点
Speaking 30点満点獲得
TOEFL iBT 得点履歴
名前：Andy田開（たびらき）
年齢：57歳
学歴：University of Missouri at Rolla 工学部原子力工学科卒業
職業：通訳 技術分野の通訳を30年以上やっています。仕事柄、欧米人と仕事をすることが多く、Andyというニックネームを使っています。
富山県在住。
講師のAndy はとても優しい田舎のおじさんです。純粋な日本人です。韓国語、中国語はできません。勉強会では手とり足とり、優しくお教えします。怖い先生ではありません。
メール：andytoeic@yahoo.co.jp
申し訳ありませんが、学生の方からのメールには対応できません。