Emperor
The title of Japan's head of state. An emperor's reign title is assigned posthumously. The 'emperor' title was first used in the early period of Nara Era [AD 710~784]. According to the Japanese legend of national foundation, the imperial family of Japan was first established by the legendary Emperor Jinmu, who was a direct descendant of the sun goddess, Amaterasu Omikami, in BC 660. About the 3rd century AD, the imperial family established dominance over the central and the western regions of Japan. And the imperial family tradition has continued for some 2,000 years. However, during the period from the 12th century to the 19th century all powers of the emperor were in the hands of nobles and the samurai. In 1868 leaders of the Meiji Restoration proclaimed that the direct rule by emperor must be restored and unified Japan as a centrally governed nation with the emperor as the symbol for national unification. Although the emperor was not given the responsibility of actual governance, loyalty to the emperor was regarded as a sacred obligation and patriotic responsibility. In 1945, as Japan lost World War II, the national Shinto system was dissolved and Emperor Hirohito denied his divine status on the following New Year's Day in the so-called 'Ningen Shengen (human declaration).' The post-war Japanese constitution defined the emperor as only a symbol for national unification and specified imperial succession and national events of emperor's participation. Thus, Emperor of Japan became a nominal being without any political powers.
Manchuria Incident
The war that broke out from Japan's invasion of Manchuria triggered by Liutiaohu Incident on September 18, 1931, which was devised and executed by the Japanese Kwantung Army for the purpose of occupying Manchuria (current Dungbei region of China). Lately there is a movement within China to change the title of the conflict to 'Manchurian War.' The Japanese Kwantung Army had been scheming to occupy Manchuria. To create a pretext for the purported aggression, they exploded the Manchurian Railway line near Liutiaohu outside of Shenyang and blamed it on the Chinese side. Subsequently they initiated military actions over the entire northern Manchuria from the Manchurian Railway line.? By early 1932 the Japanese Army occupied almost all of Manchuria. On March 1 of the year announced the foundation of 'Manchukuo,' which was a puppet government of Japan, thus turning Manchuria as an important logistic base for Japan's military aggression against China. Based on the Chinese accusation, the League of Nations dispa tched an investigative commission headed by Earl Lytton of Britain, adopted its report and advised Japan to withdraw from Manchuria. Having already annexed Rehe area, Japan refused to follow the mandate and left the League of Nations in March 1933. Subsequently, the Japanese Government terminated the political party based cabinet system and shifted to a fascist national structure. And the Japanese aggression progressed to the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 and the Pacific War of 1941.
The Second Sino-Japanese War
The war in China which was initiated by the Japanese invasion in July 1937 and spread to entire China. This war was triggered by the Lugouqiao Incident outside of Beijing on July 7, 1937. Subsequent to the incident, Japan occupied Bejing and Tienjin, expanded the war sphere to Shanghai, occupied Nanjing, which was the capital of the Kuomintang government in December 1937, where the Japanese Army massacred hundreds of thousands of civilians. Afterwards the Japanese Army attacked Wuhan and occupied most of ten provinces from Guangdong to Shanxi and most major cities within them. all farming households. The exaction scope was expanded to include some 40 products such as barley, cotton, hemp and fernbrake. The Korean people of this period also perceived 'people' as objects of public exaction in the same manner so that forcible taking of young women from their homes by the Colonial Government was commonly referred as 'cheonyeo gongchul (virgin exaction)'.
The Pacific War (1941-1945)
On December 7, 1941 Japanese aircraft and submarines attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet forces which were moored in areas of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This attack immediately prompted the U.S. to enter the World War II as a member of the allied forces. As a result of this attack, 8 battleships and 13 other naval vessels sank while 188 aircraft were destroyed and thousands of people were killed or wounded. Pearl Harbor has become a national historical site and a memorial was established on the sunken battleship USS Arizona. Also, USS Missouri, on which Japan signed the surrender document in 1945, is being preserved as a memorial site.
Nanjing Occupation/ Nanjing Massacre
From December 1937 to January 1938 Japanese Army massacred Chinese prisoners and civilians in and around the then China's capital, Nanjing, during the Second Sino-Japanese War. As some 90,000 Japanese forces surrounded Nanjing for attack, Jiang Jeshi, then China's president, fled to Chungking with his cabinet five days before the fall of the city. The Japanese Army killed about 300,000 people during this attack and about 42,000 more upon? occupying Nanjing. According to the data submitted to the International Military Tribunal of the Far East upon termination of World War II, the number of discarded corpses in Nanjing which were buried by two charity organizations alone was 155,337. Many more were thrown into Yangtze River. General Matsui, the Japanese Army commander, was executed as the responsible person for this atrocity. Also executed were Hase Hisao, commander of the Sixth Division, and numerous other military leaders for their war crimes as sentenced by the Nanjing Court.
Public Prostitution System
This system allows adults to engage in sexual transactions of their own free will without penalty in designated areas. This system was first instituted in France and spread to other European nations. It was introduced into Japan in mid-19th century. During Joseon era of Korea there was no public prostitution other than the official gisaeng system. However, in March 1916 then Japanese Governor General of Korea, Terauchi, promulgated the brothel system of Tokugawa era as the public prostitution system in Korea. Based on this edict gisaengs had to be registered at a 'gwonbeon (gisaeng house)' and pay taxes. Gwonbeons taught student gisaengs songs and dancing to produce qualified gisaengs and acted as the control center for managing their activities in saloons and handling their charges. In Seoul there were Hanseong Gwonbeon, Daedong Gwonbeon, Hannam Gwonbeon and Joseon Gwonbeon while Giseong Gwonbeon was in Pyeongyang. There were also gwonbeons in Busan, Daegu, Hamheung and Jinju. Required training courses yo ung gisaengs had to take included Korean music, dancing, traditional manners and the Japanese language. Gwonbeons were disbanded based on Law No. 7 of the Transition Government on October 14, 1947, which abolished the public prostitution system.
Public Exaction (Gongchul)
Forcible taking by the imperialist Japanese government of civilian materials and food items for their war effort since 1939. Initially the public exaction system was conducted to improve the production spirit of people. But as the financial and food supply situations degraded as the war dragged on, the Japanese colonial government announced 'Joseon Foodstuff Control Edict' in 1942 to forcibly take away all rice and other grain harvests except the amount required for household consumption from all farming households. The exaction scope was expanded to include some 40 products such as barley, cotton, hemp and fernbrake. The Korean people of this period also perceived 'people' as objects of public exaction in the same manner so that forcible taking of young women from their homes by the Colonial Government was commonly referred as 'cheonyeo gongchul (virgin exaction)'.
Japanese Colonial Government
The colonial government of Japan in Korea that ruled and plundered the Korean Peninsula for 36 years from 1910 when Joseon lost independence to the nation's liberation in 1945. On September 30, 1910 the organization of the Colonial Government and associated agencies was promulgated and the Colonial Government began functioning from the next day. The governor general who was placed in charge of the Colonial Government as the highest ruling authority of Korea was chosen from four star generals and admirals of Japan and was given full authorities of administration, legislation and military. During the final stage of their colonial rule, the Colonial Government implemented the policies of obliterating traditions, customs and even the language of Korea under the slogans of 'integration of Korea to Japan,' 'Japanese name adoption,' and 'transformation into imperial citizenry.' Japanese Colonial Government was disbanded on August 15, 1945 when Japan surrendered to the Allies.
Labor Bogukdae
The labor organization that the imperialist Japan utilized by forcibly mobilizing Koreans since the Second Sino-Japanese War to exploit their labor. Imperialist Japan announced 'Citizens' Labor Contribution Edict' in 1941. Based on this edict they forcibly took Koreans and formed numerous labor Bogukdae units, which were used to construct roads, railways, air fields and shrines. Some were dispatched to military facilities. Various organizations were created at different levels including Work Place Bogukdae; Student Bogukdae consisting of senior classes of elementary schools and high schools; South Asia Dispatch Bogukdae consisting of prisoners; and Farmers Bogukdae consisting of farmers. The last was organized mostly of those who were excluded from other forced labor mobilization. Bogukdae units were exploited under poor working conditions with no definite service period. Some 7.62 million Koreans were forcibly mobilized into various Bogukdae units from 1938 to 1944.
Full Mobilization Structure
Imperialist Japan promulgated the 'Law for National Full Mobilization' and the 'Law for Military Industry Full Mobilization' in 1938. They organized Joseon Federation in 1938 and the National Full Force Federation in 1940 to mobilize resources of Korea over the entire peninsula to support Japan's war efforts of China invasion.
Public Prostitution System
This system allows adults to engage in sexual transactions of their own free will without penalty in designated areas. This system was first instituted in France and spread to other European nations. It was introduced into Japan in mid-19th century. During Joseon era of Korea there was no public prostitution other than the official gisaeng system. However, in March 1916 then Japanese Governor General of Korea, Terauchi, promulgated the brothel system of Tokugawa era as the public prostitution system in Korea. Based on this edict gisaengs had to be registered at a 'gwonbeon (gisaeng house)' and pay taxes. Gwonbeons taught student gisaengs songs and dancing to produce qualified gisaengs and acted as the control center for managing their activities in saloons and handling their charges. In Seoul there were Hanseong Gwonbeon, Daedong Gwonbeon, Hannam Gwonbeon and Joseon Gwonbeon while Giseong Gwonbeon was in Pyeongyang. There were also gwonbeons in Busan, Daegu, Hamheung and Jinju. Required training courses young gisaengs had to take included Korean music, dancing, traditional manners and the Japanese language. Gwonbeons were disbanded based on Law No. 7 of the Transition Government on October 14, 1947, which abolished the public prostitution system.
Venereal Disease Checkup
Japanese Military conducted routine venereal disease checkups of comfort women not for their health but to prevent such diseases in their military personnel for fear of degrading their effectiveness. The number of venereal disease patients among 72,000 soldiers during the Siberian campaign of the Russo-Japanese War of 1918~1922 reached 2,012 and the total number including those of light symptoms could have been five to six times this number.
Military Checks
Special checks, called military checks, issued by the government or the military as payments for items needed by the military during a war in a foreign land or when the military is stationed overseas. The currency unit used on these military checks was either the home country currency unit or that of the local country. Occupation forces had the authority to mobilize resources in the occupied land and hence could use the home country's currency for their payments. However, military checks were normally used for reasons of the difference in currency basis, impact on the home country's economy from massive outflows of home currency to other countries and the need for preventing counterfeit money. (See photograph.)
No. 606 Injection (Salvarsan Injection)
The world's first chemical treatment drug sometimes called arsphenamine or arsenobenzone. It is called No. 606 because P. Erlich succeeded in synthesizing it in the 606th trial. It was used as the cure for syphilis, rat-bite fever, Weil disease and recurrent fever. However, it is no longer used because of its serious side effects. Erlich sought to find a medicine that will not damage human cells but destroy only the germs in human body. He repeated trials and errors over 600 times and, in 1910, finally succeeded in discovering the arsenic compound, 'Salvarsan 606,' which turned out to be highly effective against syphilis. Salvarsan meant 'arsenic that saves the world.' Salvarsan 606 was used widely as a wonder drug for four decades until penicillin became available. From today's viewpoint, salvarsan is not a great medicine. However, compared to mercury which had been used for syphilis treatment before this, it had clear efficacy with less toxicity and side effects and thus saved many syphilis patients. It also proved the fact that a synthesized chemical compound could be used effectively as a drug.
Shakku
Condom used by the Japanese Military during World War II. Shakku was manufactured by Okamoto Co. and was labeled as 'Attack No. 1.' Japanese Army and Navy purchased them centrally and distributed them to front line units and comfort stations. This shows how serious the Japanese Military was towards venereal disease prevention. Condoms of the time were sometimes torn during their use and supply problems were frequent so that shakkus were washed and recycled often.
Trauma
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. This refers to the mental handicap that persists for over a month after being exposed to a physical injury or a life threatening situation. Trauma often occurs from experiences of a war, natural disaster, fire, physical violence, rape, and accident involving an automobile, airplane or train. In summary, trauma is a mental disorder that occurs upon exposure to a physical or mental shock. Symptoms of a trauma can be categorized as hyper sensitivity, recurrence of shock, mental evasion and stupor. Patients of hyper sensitivity are always ill at ease, fearful of surroundings and suffer from insomnia. Patients of recurring shock experience the memory, dream or illusion of the relevant event at the same level of intensity. Patients of mental evasion or stupor try to avoid the feeling, thought and situation of the shock event and in the process lose normal emotional response. Most of the patients' emotions are unrealistic and they often feel degradation, anger, feeling of victimization and sense of shame. Because of these problems they could fall into alcoholism, drug abuse, self injury, suicide, professional incompetence and inter-personal relationship deficiency. The patients are often unstable emotionally, suffer from clear dysautonomia symptoms or experience illusions or hallucinations. Accompanying complications can include dissociation or panic seizures.
 
Japan established a modern nation ruled by an emperor1) and aspired to conquer the continental mainland. In 1929 Japan established a full-scale war structure as a recourse to overcome the economic depression of the time. Subsequently Japan launched the Manchuria Incident2) in 1931 and the Second Sino-Japanese War3) in 1937 as offensives on the continental mainland. Subsequently, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941 to provoke the Pacific War4) , thus joining as a belligerent of World War II.

Since establishing Manchukuo in 1932, Japan allowed the Japanese Army to operate 'comfort stations' for its soldiers within Manchuria. In 1932 the Japanese Navy established a comfort station in Shanghai. After the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese Army committed the Nanjing Massacre5) at the end of 1937 when they conducted a massive killing of civilians and raping of Chinese women. Upon receiving international criticisms on this atrocity, Japanese Military felt the need to control the sexual demands of its soldiers in a systematic way. As the war expanded and entered a long-term phase, the need to prevent rapes and spread of venereal diseases was felt more urgent by the military. Accordingly, Japanese Military expanded the comfort station system. Another important objective of the comfort station system was to contribute to effective military activities by promoting the military morale.

In the background of the comfort station system of the Japanese Military was the perception that the male sexual urge was only natural that had to be relieved and the male dominance relationship that women must be used to relieve the male sexual urge. Along the same line is the hypocritical sexual ethic that it was all right for men to exhibit their sexual drive while women who are used to satisfy such men must bear the stigma as the morally depraved.

In the historical background of the comfort station system is the age-old public prostitution system6) of Japan. The public prostitution system was imported from Japan to Taiwan and Korea where many indigenous women were incorporated as prostitutes for Japan's public prostitution network.

The acts of rape conducted within the Japanese Military comfort stations, which were established with this background, transformed numerous female victims, who were forced into prostitution, into dehumanized objects of sexual violence by the Japanese military men.


 
People who experienced the Japanese colonial rule remember terms like 'Jeongshindae' and virgin exaction7) very clearly. In Korea the term 'Jeongshindae' was used mostly in place of the Japanese Military comfort women prior to 1990s. Jeongshindae meant 'the unit of persons who voluntarily devote their bodies for a purpose.' It was a system the imperialist Japan created to mobilize labor forces for their war effort. Both men and women were subject to this mobilization drive. Jeongshindae was organized for farm work, war reporting, medical and physical labor purposes. When a Jeongshindae unit consisted females only, it was called a female Jeongshindae. Officially the 'Edict for Female Jeongshindae' was promulgated on August 23, 1944. However, Korean women had already been mobilized into Jeongshindae units through official coordination. Some of them were forcibly taken to comfort stations for the Japanese Military.

The Japanese government uses the term 'comfort women in service of the military' to distort the essence of the comfort women issue. This term 'Jonggun-wianbu (Korean term for comfort women in service of the military)' implies these women followed the Japanese military units voluntarily much like war reporters and military nurses. Thus, this term negates the coerced nature of the experiences of the wartime comfort women for the Japanese Military. The Japanese government has been using this term.

In Korea the term 'comfort women victims of the Japanese Military' is used in all laws and regulations regarding the women who were forcibly taken to Japanese Military comfort stations and were subject to sexual violence repeatedly. The term, Comfort Women, is not appropriate because it reflects the Japanese Military's viewpoint. However, the Japanese Military documents of the time used this term of comfort women (wianbu), which proves the Japanese government and the military involvement in this system.

As the comfort women issue has become public in the international society, the victims were identified as victims of sexual slaves for the Japanese Military. Numerous women were forced to the life of sexual slavery systematically and forcibly by the Japanese Military. Thus, they can be referred as 'sexual slaves for the Japanese Military.' Already this term was used in the U.N. Human Rights Committee of 1996 and the report by the special investigator for the U.N. Subcommittee for Human Rights. Thus, the term 'Japanese Military Sexual Slavery' has become an internationally recognized term that fitly describes the essence of the issue.

Based on testimonies by victims registered with the Korean Government and related documents of the Japanese government, comfort women were mobilized through various means including cheating as job opportunities, violence, threats, recruitment into Jeongshindae and Bogukdae. Other measures such as kidnapping, abduction and human trade were used also. Regardless of mobilization methods, the female victims

did not know they were headed to military comfort stations. Since they were all mobilized under strict surveillance, we can safely say that they were all forcibly taken.

Although many comfort women were mobilized by officials under direct intervention of Japanese Colonial Governent8) civilian contractors were also used to entice and mobilize young women. Such contractors and their hired recruiters approached young women with lures for job opportunities. Most of the victims were in their teens from poor families who were easily persuaded by this type of cheating technique. Many were from farm areas of Jeolla and Gyeongsang areas. It shows how these rural areas were extremely deprived during the colonial rule by the Japanese.

Some girls were mobilized as labor Jeongshindae members through schools and public offices then later turned over as comfort women. Women who were publicly mobilized through official mobilization channels such as Bogukdae9) , Bongsadae and Geullodae were often channeled to comfort stations for the military. Thus, the labor force mobilization system under the wartime full mobilization structure10)
of Japan was officially utilized to mobilize comfort women victims for the benefit of their military. As the Pacific War progressed towards its end, even the colonial military and police forces came to the front to forcibly abduct Korean women and women from the Philippines and Indonesia and sent them to military comfort stations.

The status of Korean women in families during the era when Japan implemented the military comfort station policy was far worse than Joseon era due to the male centered family structure and the Family Law as well as the hypocritical sexual ethic of the society. Jobs were scarce to women under Japan's colonial rule. When hired, female laborers received wages only about one quarter that of Japanese men and half that of Japanese women while juvenile female laborers received only one seventh of the Japanese male wage. Job centers which were mostly used for employment often supplied women to prostitution businesses. Employees of job centers recruited job-seeking women and led them to prostitution businesses, thus making hefty profits from these deals.

Since the Japanese Colonial Government publicly recognized prostitution and introduced the public prostitution system11) under public supervision, widespread human trade spread using various fraudulent methods. Colonial Korea received severe impacts from the global economic depression of 1929 and the situation of the Korean women was aggravated under the subsequent wartime colonial structure.

As the war expanded and the military increased in manpower, the Japanese Military required more comfort women. Here, Japan sought to resolve the comfort women deficiency by mobilizing women from their colonies. According to Aso Tetsuo, a former wartime military medical officer of Japan, most all comfort women at Shanghai Comfort Station as witnessed in December 1938 were Koreans.

Imperialist Japan sought to mobilize regular women broadly as comfort women. One of the justification was that the general Korean women were free of venereal diseases. This shows how well the imperialist Japan sought to exploit the Korean women in their planing for the comfort women policy and implementation of this plan.
Comfort stations were established and managed either by the military directly or contracted to civilians. Civilian run comfort stations were under protection, supervision and close control of the military. Life at a comfort station was controlled in accordance with the 'Comfort Station Usage Rules' established by Japanese Military. The rules dictated in detail hours of service, the number of solders to serve, service charges, venereal disease checkup12) and sanitary requirements. Sometimes separate stations were used for officers and for the enlisted. Other stations serviced the solders during the day, non-commissioned officers in the evening and the officers at night. Comfort station buildings were either local facilities or buildings built or leased by the military. Victim women lived within comfort stations mostly and were moved to different units or areas based on requirements of the military.

Some testified that comfort women were racially segregated to serve different classes of the military, where the Japanese women served officers while the Korean women soldiers and the Taiwanese women civilian employees of the military. Nevertheless, comfort women victims had to serve military men regardless of regulations and were often beaten and sometimes killed for refusing a demand for service. Although regulations forbade beating of comfort women, physical violence against comfort women by military men and the station managers occurred openly. Actually, victims of such violence still bear scars from such experiences and complain of residual effects from them.

Comfort station usage rules had specifications on service charges and the Japanese Military personnel paid military checks13) or tickets to the station master. However, rarely could any comfort woman save money through their work at comfort stations. Only debts increased as expenses for food, clothing and cosmetics. Many testified that often they were not paid and in most cases received military checks, which became of no value when Japan lost the war.

Venereal disease checkup was an important issue in operation of the military comfort stations. Victim comfort women had to undergo weekly inspections of their vaginal area by military medical officers. If a woman contracted a venereal disease, she was given No. 606 injection14) , segregated for treatment and forbidden to engage in service activities. In order to continue their life as comfort women, they sometimes took pregnancy prevention chemical that contained mercury. Although users of comfort stations had to wear so-called 'shakku'15) , this rule was violated often. Consequently, most comfort women contracted one or more venereal diseases and suffered serious after effects from medication and mercury intake for treatments.
As the war ended comfort women victims at military comfort stations were free to leave the stations. But many were intentionally discarded or massacred by the Japanese Military for the purpose of concealing the existence of comfort stations. Some were taken as prisoners by the Allied troops and sent home on ships. However, many remained in foreign soil and did not come home because of the terrible shame of their experiences as military comfort women. As of October 2006 the number of former comfort women victims registered with the Ministry of Gender Equality & Family was only 233 and 124 of them are alive today and the remaining 109 dead.

Victims of the Japanese Military comfort slavery who came home suffered from the psychological stress from the patriachalistic society that emphasized purity of women as essential, residual effects from sexual diseases and physical violence inflicted as well as continuing poverty. Most of these victims engaged in physical labor such as restaurant work, home cleaning and construction labor for living.


The most painful things to these comfort women victims were the sense of shame? from their comfort women experiences and the economic difficulty. However, the more painful was the fact they could not lead normal women's life of marrying and having children. Thus, these former comfort women have been suffering not only physically but more seriously from mental trauma16)


In November 1990 'The Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan' was born and activities in support of the living victims began. The Council demanded relevant legislation to the Korean Government. As a result, the National Assembly passed the 'Law for Livelihood Support of Military Sexual Slavery Victims under Japanese Rule' in 1993. This law was revised in 2005 as 'the Law on Livelihood Support and Memorial Project for the Military Sexual Slavery Victims under Japanese Rule.' This law specified programs to support and protect the comfort women victims to ensure their stable livelihood and welfare. The law also dictated projects for restoring the victims' honor and investigating related historical facts to promote correct historical understanding and enhance human rights. Subsequently, the Korean Government has been assisting the livelihood of the victims through various programs such as life subsidy (KRW 740,000 per month as of 2006), heal th care support, residence at public rental apartments and a one-time grant of KRW 43 millions. From 2006 the Government also pays for their nursing care. Some victims currently live in 'House of Sharing' and the rest home run by the Korean Council for Women. However, most of them live alone in public rental apartments.

Asan Medical Center provides free lifetime medical care to the military sexual slavery victims since 1995. Private support organizations such as The Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, Korea Jeongshindae's Institute, House of Sharing, Citizens Group for Jeongshindae Grandmothers (Daegu), Busan jeongshindae Federation, Women for Christian Livelihood (Jeonju) and Tongyeoung-Geoje Citizens for Comfort Women Grandmothers provide various support services to the victims also.