THE NANKING MASSACRE: Fact Versus Fiction
A Historian's Quest for the Truth

NOTES

Works frequently cited have been identified by the following abbreviations:

BN Nankin Senshi Henshu Iinkai [Battle of Nanking Editorial Committee], Nankin senshi [The Battle of Nanking] (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1993).
EABN Unemoto Masami, "Shogen ni yoru Nankin senshi" [Eyewitness accounts of the Battle of Nanking], Parts 1-10 in Kaiko (April 1984-March 1985).
SMBN Nankin Senshi Henshu Iinkai [Battle of Nanking Editorial Committee], Nankin senshi shiryoshu [Source material relating to the Battle of Nanking] (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1993).

PREFACE
  1. James Bacque, Other Losses: An Investigation into the Mass Deaths of German Prisoners at the Hands of the French and Americans After World War II (Toronto: Stodart Publishing, 1990), p. 87.

  2. Ibid., p. 87.

  3. Yamamoto Akihiro, "Amerika ni okeru 'Nankin' kenkyu no doko: James Bacque [no] Other Losses wo meguru rongi to hikaku shite" [Comparison of "Nanking" research trends in the U.S. and the debate over James Bacque's Other Losses] in Higashinakano Shudo, ed., Nankin "gyakusatsu" kenkyu no saizensen 2003 [The front line of research on the "Nanking Massacre" 2003] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2003), p. 143-174.

  4. George F. Will, "Breaking a Sinister Silence," Washington Post (19 February 1998), p. A17.

  5. Tomisawa Shigenobu, Nankin jiken no kakushin [The core of the Nanking Incident] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2004).

  6. See Chapter 17, Note 17.

  7. H.J. Timperley, ed., What War Means: Japanese Terror in China (New York: Modern Age Books, 1938), p. 161.

  8. Higashinakano Shudo, Kobayashi Susumu and Fukunaga Shinjiro, Nankin Jiken: "Shoko Shashin" wo kensho suru. [Analyzing the "Photographic Evidence" of the Nanking Massacre] (Tokyo: Soshisha, 2005), p. 128.

  9. Higuchi Kiichiro, Rikugun chujo Higuchi Kiichiro kaisoroku [Memoirs of Maj.-Gen. Higuchi Kiichiro] (Tokyo: Fuyo Shobo, 1999), p. 352; David Goodman and Masanori Miyazawa, Jews in the Japanese Mind (New York: Free Press, 1995), p. 112.

  10. Maeda Toru, Ruuzuberuto hiroku gekan [Roosevelt's Secret Records, vol. 2] (Tokyo: Fusosha, 2000), p. 118.

  11. Higashinakano Shudo, ed., "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (2)" [Nanking Special Agency Report No. 2] in Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen 2004 [The front line of research on the Nanking Massacre 2004] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2004), p. 84.
CHAPTER 1: THE ROAD TO THE CAPTURE OF NANKING
  1. See Kasahara Tokushi, "Hakken sareta Nankin gyakusatsu no shogen" [Testimony about Nanking Massacre unearthed] in Sekai (September 1997), p. 153.

  2. See "China unter der Kuomintang 1928-1937" in Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte: Von der Entstehung der Welt bis zur Gegenwart (Koln: Lingen Verlag, 1988), p. 123.

  3. Hallett Abend, Tortured China (New York: Ives Washburn, 1930), pp. 64, 220.

  4. Gaimusho [Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan], ed., Nihon gaiko nenpyo narabi ni shuyo bunsho [Almanac of Japanese foreign relations and principal diplomatic documents] (Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 1965), vol. 1, p. 197.

  5. The established interpretation to the effect that they need not announce maneuvers planned for this area (as long as live ammunition was not used) notwithstanding, Japanese troops had the courtesy to notify Chinese authorities in advance of their schedule. See Hata Ikuhiko, Rokokyo jiken no kenkyu [Study of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident] (Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 1996), p. 52; and "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki: Genba butai ga akashita kichona shogen" [Analysis of Jin Zhenzhong's recollections: Valuable testimony revealed by a battalion commander on the scene] in Chuo Koron, December 1987, p. 215 by the same author. Note further that Teradaira Tadasuke (a former Army lieutenant colonel assigned to the Beijing Special Agency as an aide in 1936), who witnessed the Marco Polo Bridge Incident stated, "Lin Gengyu of the Hebei-Chahar government's Foreign Relations Committee requested that we give advance notice to the Chinese whenever Japanese troops planned to conduct maneuvers using blanks, especially at night. The Final Protocol Relating to the North China Incident specifies that we are to notify Chinese authorities when we use live ammunition, but there is no mention of such an obligation when blanks are used." Teradaira described his reaction as follows: "We've been doing things this way for 30 years and have never had any problems." See Teradaira Tadasuke, Rokokyo jiken: Nihon no higeki [The Marco Polo Bridge Incident: A Japanese tragedy] (Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1970), p. 49.

  6. See dialogue among former Army Sgt. Abe Kyuroku, Pfc. Ishikawa Kotaro and Pfc. Takakuwa Yaichiro, all of whom witnessed the incident, in Showa shi no Tenno [The Emperor and Showa era history] (Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1971), p. 311f.

  7. Using blanks was standard practice during maneuvers, to avoid casualties to allies. Cf. Hata, "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki," p. 215. Note further that according to Company Commander Shimizu Setsuro (8th Company, 3rd Battalion, 1st Infantry Regiment, China Garrison), who was fired upon during night maneuvers on the right bank of the Yongding River, "The men in our unit were wearing the clothing they always wore for maneuvers. We had neither helmets nor provisions, and our front ammunition pouches contained only blanks. But since we were in an area that harbored real danger, our rear ammunition pouches held 30 rounds of live ammunition. Unfortunately, it was sealed so securely that it was virtually inaccessible." Cf. Araki Kazuo, Rokokyo no ippatsu: Jugun kenpei no shuki [A shot fired at Marco Polo Bridge: Memoirs of a military policeman] (Tokyo: Hayashi Shoten, 1968), p. 80f.

  8. Jin, Zhenzhong, "Moto Ryokokyo Shubi Daitaicho Jin Zhenzhong kaiso" [Recollections of Jin Zhenzhong, formerly a battalion commander stationed at the Marco Polo Bridge] Chuo Koron (December 1987), p. 209f.

  9. There were no Japanese tanks in the area until reinforcements arrived toward the end of July. Cf. Hata, "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki," p. 215.

  10. Jin, op. cit., p. 209.

  11. Hata, Rokokyo jiken no kenkyu, p. 140.

  12. According to Hata, "the soldier who was reported missing (Private Shimura) returned to his unit within 20 minutes, at about 11:00 p.m. on July 7. The Beijing Special Agency sent a report to that effect to the Chinese authorities at about 2:00 a.m. on July 8. Thereafter, Japanese troops no longer had a pretext for gaining entry into Wanping (they occupied the castle on July 29)." Cf. Hata, "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki," p. 215. See also Hata's citations from "The Memoirs of Wang Lingzhai" in his Nicchu senso shi [History of the Second Sino-Japanese War] (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo Shinsha, 1961), p. 173. Note further that when Wang Lingzhai received the aforementioned report, Maj. Sakurai Tokutaro (adviser to the 29th Nationalist Army) proceeded to Wanping, accompanied by Wang, Lin Gengyu (member of the Foreign Relations Committee) and Teradaira Tadasuke, an aide on the staff of the Beijing Special Agency). The party departed from the Beijing Special Agency at about 4:00 a.m. on July 8, the purpose of their journey being to convince Jin Zhenzhong, commander of the Chinese troops in Wanping, to prevent the hostilities from escalating. See Teradaira, op. cit., 104.

  13. Officers of the 29th Army insisted that none of the units under them had ever been sent outside the Marco Polo Bridge area. For statements made by Vice-Commander Qin Dechun and 37th Army Commander Feng Zhian, see Araki, op. cit., pp. 83, 87. However, at 5:30 a.m., when the Japanese began to retaliate, the 39th Army fled to the Marco Polo Bridge in front of Wanping. Also, a notebook in the pocket of a Chinese soldier found in a trench under the bridge contained the following information about his superiors: "Gen. Song Zheyuan, commander, 29th Army; Lt. Gen. Feng Zhian, commander, 37th Division; Maj. Gen. He Fengji, 110th Brigade; Col. Ji Xingwen, commander, 219th Infantry Regiment; Maj. Jin Zhenzhong, commander, 3rd Battalion; Capt. Geng Xixun, commander, 11th Company." For further details, see Teradaira, op. cit., pp. 134f., 137. Note further that Jin Zhenzhong stated that the Japanese commenced firing between 11:00 p.m. on July 7 and 2:00 a.m. on the following morning. However, the fact is that the Japanese did not begin shelling until 5:30 a.m. on July 8 (See Jin, op. cit., p. 209f.)

  14. Tokyo Saiban Shiryo Kankokai [IMTFE Document Publishing Group], Tokyo Saiban kyakka miteishutsu bengogawa shiryo [Defense exhibits rejected by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East or prepared for but not submitted to] (Tokyo: Kokusho Kankokai, 1995), vol. 7, p. 296.

  15. See Hata, Rokokyo jiken no kenkyu, p. 171 and Nakamura Akira, Dai Toa Senso e no michi [The road to the Greater East Asian War] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 1990), p. 395.

  16. Nakamura, op. cit., p. 402f.

  17. Tokyo Saiban Shiryo Kankokai, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 56f.

  18. Ibid., p. 57.

  19. The following contemporaneous books authored by Americans refer to "the massacre of Japanese men, women and children at Tungchow by Chinese soldiers" or the "Tungchow massacre:" Frederick Williams, Behind the News in China (New York: Nelson Hughes Co., 1938), p. 22 and George C. Bruce, Shanghai's Undeclared War (Shanghai: Mercury Press, 1937), p. 10.

  20. Nitta Mitsuo, ed., Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban Sokkiroku [Reports of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East] (Tokyo: Yushodo Shoten, 1968), vol.5, p. 171.

  21. Ibid., p. 172.

  22. Ibid., p. 173.

  23. Shiba Sen, Shiki [Ssu-ma Ch'ien's historical records], trans. Odake Fumio and Odake Takeo (Tokyo: Chikuma Gakugei Bunko, 1995), vol. 2, p. 16.

  24. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 282.

  25. Ibid., p. 138.

  26. Yang Jialuo, ed., Xinxiao zizhitongjian zhu [Revised commentary of comprehensive mirror for aid in government] (Taipei: World Publishing Co., 1962).

  27. Abend, op. cit., pp. 66f., 72.

  28. Sasaki Toichi, Aru gunjin no jiden [Autobiography of a career officer] (Tokyo: Futsusha, 1963), p. 174.

  29. Agnes Smedley, Idai naru michi [The great road], trans. Abe Tomoji (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1955) vol. 2, p. 213.

  30. Tanaka Seigen, Tanaka Seigen Jiden [Autobiography of Tanaka Seigen] (Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1993), p. 283.

  31. Edgar Snow, Chugoku no akaihoshi [Red Star Over China], trans. Usami Seijiro (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1964), p. 239.

  32. Smedley, op. cit., p. 263.

  33. See Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl Wudun, China Wakes: The Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), pp. 73ff. The authors include descriptions of horrendous crimes: "Bodies were humiliated and destroyed, so that while the killing was awful, what came next was even worse. Take the case of three women: Lu Yu, of Siyang Commune; Huang Shaoping, a teacher at Guangjiang River Elementary School; Chen Guolian, of Hepu County's Shikang Township. After they were beaten to death, sticks were poked into their vaginas and their corpses were left naked along the roadside."

  34. Tokyo Saiban Shiryo Kankokai, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 6.

  35. Claude Farrere, "Shina Kiko" (Travels in China) in Shina (China), Toa Dobunkai, (September 1938), p. 193. This article also appeared in the May 1938 issue of Revue des deux mondes.

  36. Ibid., p. 193.

  37. Toa Dobunkai, ed., Shin Shina gensei yoran [The current situation in China] (Tokyo: Toa Dobunkai, 1938), p. 65.

  38. See Edouard Helsey, "Shina Jihen mita mama" [Witness to the Second Sino Japanese War] in Kokusai panfuretto tsushin [International news pamphlet] 1120 (01 August 1938), p. 14f. Helsey was a correspondent for Gringoire, a French weekly. The article's original title was "La guerre en Chine."

  39. See Toa Dobunkai, op. cit., p. 772 and BN, p. 11ff.

  40. As of July 12, Chinese forces numbered 50,000 as opposed to only 5,000 Japanese troops (a Special Naval Landing Forces unit). Cf. Boei Kenshujo Senshishitsu [Defense Research Institute, Military History Department], Senshi sosho: Shina jihen rikugun sakusen (1) Showa 13 nen 1 gatsu made [Military history series: Army operations during the Second Sino Japanese War, Part 1: 1933-1938] (Tokyo: Asagumo Shinbunsha, 1975), p. 261f.

  41. Toa Dobunkai, op. cit., p. 71ff.

  42. The China Year Book 1938 (Shanghai: The North-China Daily News & Herald, 1938), p. 352. Similar accounts appear in Farrere, op. cit., p. 194 and Helsey, op. cit., p. 25.

  43. Chugaku shakai: Rekishi [Middle school social studies: History] (Tokyo: Kyoiku Shuppan, 1999), p. 250.

  44. See Eto Jun, Wasureta koto to wasuresaserareta koto [What we have forgotten and what we have been forced to forget] (Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1979), p. 280. Chinese troops, already superior in number, received further reinforcements at the rapid rate of one division per day. By early September, nearly 40,000 Japanese soldiers had landed, but the Chinese had 190,000 men on the front lines alone, and forces at the rear had swelled to 270,000. Seventy thousand Japanese troops had landed by early October, but by then the Chinese forces were 700,000 men strong.

  45. Japanese troops required three months to bring the second Shanghai Incident to an end. According to Boei Kenshujo Senshishitsu, op. cit., approximately 20,000 Japanese soldiers died in battle, and some 60,000 were wounded. Three thousand Japanese troops were killed during the first Shanghai Incident, but the statistics from the second incident defy comparison. They represented losses of life not seen since the Russo-Japanese War.

  46. Boei Kenshujo Senshishitsu, op. cit.

  47. Erwin Wickert, ed., The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), p. 9.

  48. SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 185, 210.

  49. Ibid., p. 133.

  50. SMBN, vol. 1, p. 428f.

  51. "Nakashina Homen Gun meirei" [Central China Area Army Order] in ibid., p. 432.

  52. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in ibid., p. 433.

  53. "Nankin nyujogo ni okeru shochi" [Course of action to be taken upon entering Nanking] in ibid., p. 432.

  54. "Nankinjo no koryaku oyobi nyujo ni kansuru chui jiko" [Precautions to be taken when attacking and entering Nanking) in ibid., p. 434.

  55. Testimony of Maj. Nakayama Yasuto, Central China Area Army staff officer, in Hora Tomio, ed., Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu (1) Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen [Source material relating to the Nanking Massacre during the Second Sino-Japanese War: Sources from the International Military Tribunal for the Far East] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1985), vol. 1, p. 203.

  56. Testimony of Lt. Gen. Nakazawa Mitsuo, 16th Division chief of staff, in ibid., p. 245.
CHAPTER 2: NANKING BEFORE THE FALL
  1. For the text of Wang Jingwei's speech, "The Final Juncture," delivered on July 31, 1937, see Matsumoto Shigeharu, Shanhai jidai [Shanghai Sojourn], vol. 3 (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1975), pp. 170-174, especially p. 172f.

  2. See Wakokubon seishi shinjo [Authorized history (reprinted in Japan)] (Tokyo: Kyuko Shoin, 1971), p. 1325. The purpose of the scorched-earth strategy was to leave no food, shelter or potential laborers behind for enemy troops to use. The Jin Shu [History of the Jin Dynasty] contains an exhortation to fortify cities, then to reduce all the land around them to ashes so that nothing remains for an invading army to steal or use. This exhortation is an indication that this strategy was employed at least as far back as the 4th century. Furthermore, we know that it endured well into the 20th century, since it was used by Chiang Kai-shek in the Battle of Nanking. Cf. Higashinakano Shudo, "Nankin koza dai ikkai: Sanko sakusen to Nankin gyakusatsu - Nankin no rekishi ni miru senpo" [First Nanking lecture: Sanguang (three-all) strategy and the Nanking Massacre - tactics used throughout Nanking's history] in Getsuyo Hyoron [Monday review] (January 2000).

  3. "Nenpyo (1798)" [Chronology for 1798] in Tanigawa Michio and Mori Masao, eds., Chugoku minshu hanranshi [The history of people's rebellions in China] (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1982), vol. 3, p.337.

  4. See "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, revised edition, vol. 1, p. 639.

  5. Ibid.

  6. Ibid.

  7. For "undefended places," see Kokusai Hogakkai hen [International Law Society of Japan], Kokusaiho jiten [International law dictionary] (Tokyo: Kajima Shuppankai, 1982), p. 661.

  8. For Bai Chongxi's views, see "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 639.

  9. Ibid. (for statements made by He Yingqin, Xu Yongchang, von Falkenhausen and Tang Shengzhi).

  10. Ibid.

  11. Ibid., p. 640.

  12. "Nanking Prepares to Resist Attack," New York Times (01 December 1937).

  13. EABN, Part 3 in Kaiko (June 1984), p. 6.

  14. New York Times (07 December 1937).

  15. See Kasahara Tokushi, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" [Conversations with Tillman Durdin] in Nankin jiken shiryoshu 1: Amerika kankei shiryo hen [Nanking Incident Source Material: American References], trans. Nankin Jiken Chosa Kenkyukai hen [Nanking Incident Research Group] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1992), vol. 1, p. 572.

  16. Tillman Durdin, "Chinese Make Stand," New York Times (08 December 1937).

  17. Ibid.

  18. Tillman Durdin, "300 Chinese Slain on a Peak Ringed by Fires Set by Foe", New York Times (09 December 1937).

  19. Abend, "Japanese in Drive to Take Nanking after Ultimatum," New York Times (10 December 1937).

  20. Durdin, "300 Chinese Slain on Peak," op. cit.

  21. As Durdin's article dispatched from Nanking on December 9 indicates, the scorched-earth tactic was a Chinese defense strategy.

  22. Toa Dobunkai, op. cit., p. 760.

  23. Ibid. Cf. Wickert, op. cit., p. 26.

  24. Lily Abegg, "Wie wir aus Nanking fluchteten: Die letzten Tage in der Haupstadt Chinas" in Frankfurter Zeitung (19 December 1937).

  25. Ichiki Yoshimichi, ed., Nankin [Nanking] (Nanking Japanese Chamber of Commerce, 1941), p. 22.

  26. The China Year Book 1938, (Shanghai: The North China Daily News & Herald, March 1938), p. 1.

  27. Ko Bunyu, Ari no mama no Chugoku [The Real China] (Tokyo: Nihon Bungeisha, 1996), p. 56.

  28. Abegg, op. cit.

  29. The 09 December 1937 edition of the Osaka Asahi Shinbun reported that "the valley containing Mausoleum Park is now a sea of furious flames." The New York Times carried a story reading, in part: "Rumors of a plan to burn down Nanking, though they are daily officially denied, are causing terror among many sections of the populace." Cf. Durdin, "Chinese Make Stand," op. cit.

  30. Abegg, op. cit.

  31. Ibid.

  32. EABN, Part 3 in Kaiko (June 1984), p. 7.

  33. Abegg, op. cit.

  34. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee: November 1937 to April 1939, in Miner Bates' Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 102, Folder 867, p. 5.

  35. Cf. Testimony of Hidaka Shinrokuro, Japanese consul general in Shanghai, at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, "Sanjuman hinanmin no chichi, Jakino sojo wo tou" [A visit with Father Jacquinot, protector of 300,000 refugees] in Hora, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 185, 271 for a description of the Jacquinot Zone in Shanghai; Tsu Y.Y., "The Christian Church in War-time Service," China Quarterly (Winter 1938-39), p. 79.

  36. For information about members of the Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone, see Tillman Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking after Chinese Command Fled," New York Times (09 January 1938); Wickert, op. cit., p. 43.

  37. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 3.

  38. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 125f.

  39. The China Year Book 1939 (Shanghai: The North-China Daily News & Herald, 1939), p. 562. The Safety Zone was approximately the size of New York's Central Park.

  40. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 130.

  41. "Nanking was transformed into a huge fortress." Yomiuri Shinbun (02 December 1937, evening edition) in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 642.

  42. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," New York Times (18 December 1937).

  43. Durdin, "Chinese Make Stand." Note further that Durdin's coverage of the Nanking Safety Zone included the following: "The movement of noncombatants elsewhere [in the city] will be banned, except for persons holding special permits to be indicated by a symbol on yellow arm bands."

  44. Tokyo Nichinichi Shinbun (08 December 1937) in BN, p. 273.

  45. John Rabe's letter to Dr. Rosen dated January 30, 1938 in Hsu Shuhsi, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1939), p. 114.

  46. Harold J. Timperley, ed., What War Means: The Japanese Terror in China (Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1969), reprint of 1938 edition, p. 143.

  47. Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (08 December 1937) in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai [Meiji, Taisho, Showa Period Newspaper Research Group], Shinbun shusei Showa hennenshi: Showa 12 nendoban IV [Annual chronology from newspapers in the Showa era: 1937 Edition] (Tokyo: Shinbun Shiryo Shuppan, 1990), vol. 4, 619. This information was disseminated by the Domei News Agency on the basis of an Associated Press wire sent from New York on December 7.

  48. Encrypted telegram (No. 1007) sent by Gray and dated 11:00 a.m., December 12, in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 94.

  49. Archibald T. Steele, "Chiang Quits Nanking as Foes Advance," Chicago Daily News (08 December 1937), in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 459.

  50. Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (06 December 1937), in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 590.

  51. For details about Commander-in-Chief Matsui's gift of 10,000 to the International Committee in Nantao, Shanghai, see the testimony of Shanghai Consul General Hidaka Shinrokuro at the Tokyo Trials, in Hora, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 185. For French authorities' plans for and attitude toward the Jacquinot Zone, see ibid., p. 185f.

  52. Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (06 December 1937), in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 590.

  53. "Nankin anzen chitai fushonin seimei" [Announcement of refusal to recognize Nanking Safety Zone], Gaiko Jiho [Foreign Affairs Review], No. 794 (01 January 1938), p. 340.

  54. Ibid.

  55. Ibid.

  56. "Foreigners Urged to Evacuate; Notification Sent to Shanghai Consular Association," Osaka Asahi Shinbun (09 December 1937) in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 638.

  57. "Fleeing Chinese Soldiers Refused Entry; Hostilities Continue on Outskirts of Nanking," Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (10 December 1937), in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 645.

  58. Durdin, "300 Chinese Slain on a Peak Ringed by Fires Set by Foe," New York Times (09 December 1937).

  59. EABN, Part 4 in Kaiko (July 1984), p. 8.
CHAPTER 3: ASSAULT ON THE GATES OF NANKING
  1. Hora, op. cit., p. 176.

  2. For the China Area Army's organization chart and staff list, see SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 685-725, especially p. 696. During the Russo-Japanese War, which took place right before Japan signed the Hague Convention of 1907 Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, four legal scholars accompanied Japanese troops to Russia. Thus began a tradition, which continued with the assignment of Saito Yoshie, doctor of law, to China. See Shinoda Harusaku, "Hokushi jihen to rikusen hoki" Gaiko Jiho [Foreign Affairs Review], No. 788 (01 October 1937), p. 50f.

  3. "Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land", in Yamamoto Soji, Kokusai Joyakushu 1995 [Anthology of International Treaties: 1995] (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 1995), pp. 510-513, especially p. 512.

  4. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," New York Times (18 December 1937).

  5. Shimada Katsumi: "Do not destroy the Zhongshan Mausoleum."

  6. Georg Rosen, "Nankings Ubergang, 20. Januar 1938", in Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 203.

  7. Steele reports that the International Committee proposed a two-day cease-fire. See "Death Rains on Nanking in Furious Bombardment," Chicago Daily News (10 December 1937).

  8. Entry for December 10, 1937, in "Yamazaki Masao nikki" [Journal of Yamazaki Masao] (major) in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 289.

  9. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo", in ibid., p. 433.

  10. In China, the practice of annihilating enemy troops who refuse to surrender is called j(tucheng: literally, "butcher the city"). The entry in the 13-volume Dai kanwa jiten (势aT) edited by Morohashi Tetsuji draws on the chapter of Xunzi that relates to military affairs for the example it gives: "Do not obliterate cities." (In this case, "obliterate" means destroying the walls of a city and slaughtering its residents.) Xunzi, who flourished during the 3rd century BC, cautions virtuous men to refrain from obliterating cities and their inhabitants. The word "annihilate" (j), as the aforementioned note tells us, describes attackers' acts of destroying a resisting enemy's city walls, and then slaughtering the inhabitants of that city, just as they would animals. There is a clear distinction between tucheng and (bacheng), which means simply to storm or capture a city. Chinese military leaders adopted the ǐ (jianbi qingye) or "fortify and burn" strategy, which, according to the same dictionary, describes a military tactic whereby city walls are strengthened and fields burned, leaving no spoils for the vanquishing enemy. When this strategy was employed, conquering armies found no food, shelter or laborers. We know that jianbi qingye dates back to the 4th century AD, since W [Jinshu, or History of the Jin Dynasty] contains a reference to it: "All the city walls were fortified, and all the fields burned, so that nothing remained." It is common knowledge that the strategy persisted until the 20th century, when it was adopted by Chiang Kai-shek for the Battle of Nanking. See Morohashi Tetsuji, ed., Dai kanwa jiten [Comprehensive Chinese-Japanese dictionary] (Tokyo: Taishukan, 1955-60), vol. 6, p. 162.

  11. Hohei dai 36 rentai [36th Infantry Regiment], "Chushi homen ni okeru kodo gaiyo: 1937 nen 9 gatsu kokonoka - 1939 nen 7 gatsu 11 nichi" [Operations in central China between September 9, 1937 and July 11, 1939] (mimeographed on October 1, 1939), p. 26; BN, p. 175. For a description of the situation at Guanghua Gate, see Sasaki Motokatsu, Yasen Yubinki [Field post office flag] (Tokyo: Gendai Shiryo Center Shuppankai, 1973), p. 223.

  12. Cheng Kuilang, "Nankinjo fukukaku jinchi kochiku to shujo sento" [The complex architecture of Nanking's walls and the defensive battle] in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 485-494, especially p. 492.

  13. Testimony of Ouchi Yoshihide (Defense Exhibit No. 2686) in Hora, op. cit., p. 237f.

  14. For details concerning hostilities at Guanghua Gate, see BN, p. 175ff.

  15. For more information concerning soldiers' hiding places, see Nanjing: Tourist Map, (Jiangsu: Jiangsu People's Publishing, 1992), which explains that "Zhonghua Gate, built in the 14th century, it consists of 3 citadels, 4 archways and 27 caves big enough for hiding 3000 soldiers."

  16. For details about the hostilities at Zhonghua Gate, see BN, p. 218f.

  17. "Yamazaki Masao nikki" entry dated December 14, 1937 in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 295.

  18. Testimony of Osugi Hiroshi (Defense Exhibit No. 2238) in Hora, op. cit., p. 235.

  19. Cheng Kuilang, op. cit. in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 494; "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 640.

  20. Wickert, op. cit. p. 63.

  21. In a journal entry dated December 17, Maj.-Gen. Iinuma Mamoru writes that he observed approximately 20 units of enemy soldiers, comprising, 10,000 men, in the neighborhood of Nanking. Cf. SMNB, vol. 1, p. 159. Tillman Durdin wrote the following on this subject:

    It is difficult to say just what the strength of the Chinese Army in and around Nanking was. Some observers estimated that there were as many as sixteen divisions participating in the battle for the city. This could be true. Chinese divisions even in normal times have an average of only 5,000 men. The battered divisions that defended Nanking were, possibly, at least in some cases, composed of only 2,000 or 3,000 men each. It is fairly safe to say that some 50,000 troops took part - and were trapped - in the defense of Nanking.

    It is very likely that the source of Durdin's figures was a prior briefing. He continues:

    The Japanese themselves announced that during the first three days of cleaning up Nanking 15,000 Chinese soldiers were rounded up. At the time, it was contended that 25,000 more were still hiding out in the city.

    Durdin adds that "about 20,000 were executed." Cf. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit.

  22. Tang Shengzhi, "Nankin boei no keika" [The Defense of Nanking] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 621-626, especially p. 624.

  23. "Nanjing baoweizhan zhandou xiangbao (1937 nian 12 yue) Nanjing weishujun zhandou xiangbao" [Battle report: Battle waged in defense of Nanking: Nanking Garrison, December 1937] in ibid., pp. 608-614, especially pp. 609, 614.

  24. Kasahara, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 572.

  25. "Makihara Nobuo nikki" [Journal of Makihara Nobuo] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 406. Makihara was a private first class in the 23rd Infantry Regiment.

  26. Kasahara, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 569.

  27. Kasahara, "Archibald Steele shi kara no kikigaki" [Conversations with Archibald Steele] (September 4, 1987), in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 584.

  28. Abend, op. cit., pp. 170, 176. He describes groups of regular Chinese soldiers as "bandit armies" and the Chinese Army as a whole as a "predatory organization."

  29. "Nanjing baoweizhan zhandou xiangbao" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 614.

  30. Ibid.

  31. Ibid.

  32. BN, pp. 348, 358.

  33. Cheng Kuilang, op. cit. in SNBM, vol. 2, p. 494.

  34. "Nanjing baoweizhan zhandou xiangbao" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 613.

  35. "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 640.

  36. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit.

  37. Steele, "Nanking Massacre Story," Chicago Daily News (15 December 1937).

  38. Kasahara, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 571.

  39. Kasahara, "Archibald Steele shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 577.

  40. B.K., "Events and Comments: The War in China" in The China Journal, XXVIII (January 1938).

  41. "Outstanding Events in the Sino-Japanese War: A Day-to-Day Summary" in The China Weekly Review (29 January 1938).

  42. "Enemy stragglers converging at Anqing," Osaka Asahi Shinbun (26 December 1937).
CHAPTER 4: THE MEANING OF "DISPOSITION OF PRISONERS"
  1. Rikugun hohei gakko [Army Infantry School], "Tai Shina gun sentoho no kenkyu" [A study of combat methods used against Chinese troops], 1933 in Fujiwara Akira, Shinpan Nankin daigyakusatsu [The Nanking Massacre: New edition] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1992), p. 26.

  2. Hora Tomio, Nankin daigyakusatsu no shomei [Proof of the Nanking Massacre] (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1987), p. 316.

  3. Fujiwara, op. cit., p. 26.

  4. "Article 8 of the Regulations Annexed to the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 511.

  5. For "Kosen hoki kanrei ni kansuru kisoku" [Application of customary rules of warfare], a notice issued by the vice-minister of war on August 5, 1937 (Top Secret China Army Notice No. 198), see Defense Research Institute, Army Operations During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Part 2, p. 465; SMBN, vol. 1, p. 457.

  6. Ibid., p. 465f.

  7. Ibid., p. 466.

  8. "Article 23 of Regulations Annexed to the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 512.

  9. "Dai 13 shidan sento shoho besshi oyobi fuzu" [13th Division battle instructions] in Hata, Nankin Jiken [The Nanking Incident] (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1992), p. 68f.
CHAPTER 5: POINTS IN DISPUTE (1)
  1. Kojima Noboru, Nicchu senso [The Sino-Japanese War] (Tokyo: Bunshun Bunko, 1993 (first printing, 1984)), vol. 4, p. 225.

  2. Hohei Dai 66 Rentai Dai 1 Daitai [1st Battalion, 66th Infantry Regiment], Sento shoho [Battle report] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 560- 572, especially p. 567.

  3. Sento shoho: Showa 12 nen 12 gatsu toka kara 12 gatsu 13 nichi made [Battle report: December 10-13, 1937] of the 1st Battalion, 66th Infantry Regiment contains five types of battalion orders, including one issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12. It also contains five types of 66th Infantry Regiment orders, one of which was issued at 12:20 a.m. on December 13. The recipient is designated on the first of the five battalion orders, but the others are marked simply "transmitted verbally and later in writing."

  4. "114 shimei ko 62 go dai 114 shidan meirei" [114th Division Order No. A62] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 450.

  5. "Ho dai 128 ryo mei dai 66 go: uyokutai meirei" [128th Infantry Brigade Order No. 66 (right flank order)] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 451.

  6. "114 shimei ko dai 59 go dai 114 shidan meirei" [114th Division Order No. A59] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 449.

  7. "Dai 13 shidan sento shoho besshi oyobi fuzu" in Hata, op. cit.

  8. Oyake Isaburo was deputy commander of the 1st Platoon, 4th Company. See Ara Kenichi, "Jorui: Heishitachi no Nanking jiken 19" [Fortress: Soldiers' recollections of the Nanking Incident 19] in Maru (July 1990), p. 213.

  9. According to a battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12, at Zhonghua Gate, "some enemy officers refused to surrender, opting to fight to the death; others shot their subordinates in the back when they attempted to surrender." See SMBN, vol. 1, p. 561. The Chinese supervisory unit was notorious for its habit of shooting soldiers who attempted to escape or surrender.

  10. Battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12, ibid. The order was issued (and signed by) Captain Shibuya, deputy commander, 1st Battalion.

  11. Battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12; 66th Infantry Regiment order issued at 12:20 a.m. on December 13 in ibid., p. 562ff.

  12. "Oyake Isaburo daiichi shotaicho dairi no shogen" [Testimony of Oyake Isaburo, deputy commander, 1st Platoon] in Ara, op. cit., p. 212.

  13. Ibid., p. 213.

  14. Battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12 in ibid., p. 561.

  15. Battalion order issued at 7:50 p.m. on December 12 in ibid., p. 562.

  16. Nishizawa Benkichi, Warera no tairiku senki: Hohei dai 66 rentai dai 3 chutai no ayumi [Our battles in China: History of 3rd Company, 66th Regiment], self-published, 1972, p. 92.

  17. Ibid., p. 97.

  18. Oyake, in Ara, op. cit., p. 213.

  19. Ibid.

  20. Ara Kenichi, who has pointed out how difficult it is to accurately depict the events that transpire during hostilities, believes that the battle report prepared by the 1st Battalion is more fiction than fact. Cf. Ara, "Jorui: Heishitachi no Nanking jiken" in op. cit, p. 209.

  21. Oyake, in Ara, op. cit., p. 213

  22. Ibid., p. 97.

  23. Testimony of Shimada Katsumi (commander, 2nd Machine-gun Company, 33rd Infantry Regiment) in BN, p. 163.

  24. Oyake in Ara, op. cit., p. 213.
CHAPTER 6: POINTS IN DISPUTE (2): "TAKE NO PRISONERS"
  1. See "Nakajima Kesago nikki" [Journal of Nakajima Kesago] (16th Division commander), in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 197-251, especially p. 220.

  2. Fujiwara, op. cit., p. 30f.

  3. Hata, The Nanking Incident, pp. 69, 117.

  4. Testimony of Onishi Hajime, Shanghai Expeditionary Force staff officer (later head of the Nanking Special Agency) in Ara Kenichi, Kikigaki: Nankin jiken [Interviews with witnesses to the Nanking incident] (Tokyo: Tosho Shuppansha, 1987), pp. 6-23, especially p. 10.

  5. See Chapter 4, Note 1.

  6. "Dai 13 shidan sento shoho besshi oyobi fuzu" in Hata, op. cit., p. 69.

  7. "Nakajima Kesago nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 220.

  8. "Article 8 of the Regulations Annexed to the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 511.

  9. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" [Journal of Iinuma Mamoru] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 156f.

  10. The several thousand Chinese soldiers who surrendered near Xianhe Gate, "waving white flags," bore strips of cloth on their chests on which "Our unit will fight to the death to defend the capital" had been written. The unit comprised regular soldiers and civilian volunteers, all of whom were wearing uniforms. For details, see the testimony of 2nd Lt. Sawada Masahisa in BN, pp. 254-257, especially p. 255f. For details of the conflict at Xianhe Gate, see Chapter 8, p. 155 of this book.

  11. "Sento shoho" [Battle report], No. 12, 38th Infantry Regiment (December 14, 1937) in BN, pp. 483-488, especially p. 488. A chart is attached to the end of this battle report, on which is written: "The 200-man 10th Company received orders to guard the area around Yaohua Gate. There, at about 8:30 a.m. on [December] 14, several thousand enemy soldiers were observed approaching, waving white flags. At 1:00 p.m. said soldiers were disarmed and transported to Nanking." Sasaki Motokatsu, who ran the field post office established after the fall of Nanking describes an encounter with "large groups of disarmed Chinese soldiers" in front of Zhongshan Gate on December 17. (See Sasaki Motokatsu, op. cit., p. 220. Furthermore, Staff Officer Sakakibara Kazue attests to having "escorted four to five thousand prisoners to the Central Prison (No. 1 Penitentiary) in Nanking on December 16 and 17, where they were confined." See BN, p. 324.
CHAPTER 7: POINTS IN DISPUTE (3): WE ARE TOLD TO KILL ALL PRISONERS; ALL UNITS DESPERATELY SHORT OF FOOD
  1. "Yamada Senji Nikki" [Journal of Yamada Senji ] (Hohei Dai 103 Ryodancho, Rikugun shosho) [Major general and commander of 103rd Infantry Brigade] in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 283-338, especially p. 330 (journal entry dated December 11).

  2. Ibid. (journal entry dated December 12).

  3. Yamada had been ordered to capture the forts at Wulongshan and Mufushan, and to facilitate the advance of the Sasaki Detachment. When he received his orders, the 65th Regiment and the 3rd Battalion, 19th Mountain Artillery Regiment departed, at 5:00 p.m. Theirs was a night march, as it was already dark.

  4. Maj.-Gen. Yamada had planned to spend the night at Xiaqijie, "but all houses there had been burned to the ground - there were no usable buildings." See SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331.

  5. "Yamada Senji nikki" [Journal of Yamada Senji] in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331.

  6. Ibid.

  7. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki (Hohei dai 65 Rentaicho: Hohei taisa)" [Journal of Col. Morozumi Gyosaku: Commander, 65th Infantry Regiment] in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 339-341, especially p. 339.

  8. "Yamada Senji nikki," SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331.

  9. "Saito Jiro jinchu nikki" [War journal of Saito Jiro] (pseudonym, private first class) in Ono Kenji, Fujiwara Akira, Honda Katsuichi, eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu wo kiroku shita kogun heishitachi: Dai 13 shidan Yamada shitai heishi no jinchu nikki [Imperial Army soldiers' accounts of the Nanking Massacre: War journals kept by soldiers in the Yamada Detachment, 13th Division] (Tokyo: Otsuki Shoten, 1996), pp. 3-55, especially p. 37; "Endo Shigetaro jinchu nikki" [War journal of Endo Shigetaro] (pseudonym, private first class) in ibid., pp. 87-95, especially p. 89.

  10. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 339; Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 255, 325, 351, 373.

  11. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" [War journal of Miyamoto Shogo] (pseudonym, 2nd lieutenant) in ibid., pp. 123-140, especially p. 133; "Amano Saburo gunji yubin" [Military mail posted by Amano Saburo] (pseudonym, 2nd lieutenant) in ibid., pp. 245-258, especially p. 251.

  12. Testimony of Hirabayashi Sadaharu in Suzuki Akira, Nankin daigyakusatsu no maboroshi [The Nanking Massacre illusion] (Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1982), p. 198.

  13. The journal entry in "Yamada Senji nikki" cited by Suzuki Akira reads: "On December 15 I dispatched 2nd Lt. Honma to the Division regarding the disposition of the prisoners. We are told to kill them. All units are desperately short of food." Cf. ibid., p. 193.

  14. "Yamada Senji nikki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331.

  15. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in ibid., p. 339.

  16. See conclusion stated at end of Chapter 4.

  17. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 339.

  18. Ibid.

  19. "Odera Takashi jinchu nikki" [War journal of Odera Takashi] (pseudonym, private first class) in Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 183-209, especially p. 196.

  20. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 339.

  21. "Endo Takaaki jinchu nikki" [War journal of Endo Takaaki] (pseudonym, 2nd lieutenant) in Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 211-229, especially p. 219.

  22. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" in ibid., p. 134.

  23. "Nakano Masao jinchu nikki" [War journal of Nakano Masao] (pseudonym, private first class) in ibid., pp. 113-121, especially p. 116.

  24. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 340.

  25. Ibid., p. 339.

  26. Ibid., p. 340.

  27. Testimony of Navy Lt. Hashimoto Mochitsura in BN, p. 264.

  28. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 340.

  29. Ibid.

  30. Testimony of Hirabayashi Sadaharu in Suzuki, op. cit., p. 196f.

  31. "Araumi Kiyoe nikki" [Journal of Araumi Kiyoe] (pseudonym, private first class) in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 342-346, especially p. 345.

  32. Suzuki, op. cit., p. 196f.

  33. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 340.

  34. Ibid.

  35. "Meguro Fukuji jinchu nikki" [War journal of Meguro Fukuji] (pseudonym, corporal) in Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 359-374, especially p. 373.

  36. Ibid.

  37. "Endo Takaaki jinchu nikki" in ibid., p. 219.

  38. Ibid., p. 219f.

  39. Ibid., p. 220.

  40. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" in ibid., p. 134.

  41. Ibid.

  42. Testimony of Hirabayashi Sadaharu in Suzuki, op. cit., p. 198.

  43. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" in Ono et al., op. cit., p. 133f.

  44. Ibid.
CHAPTER 8: FIERCE BATTLES OUTSIDE THE WALLS OF NANKING AFTER THE FALL OF THE CITY
  1. "Nakajima Kesago nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 220 (cited in Chapter 6, p. 115?).

  2. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki (Hohei dai 30 ryodancho/rikugun shosho)" [Diary of Maj. Gen. Sasaki Toichi (Army major general and commander of 30th Infantry Brigade)] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 263-276, especially p. 270.

  3. Ibid. Maj. Gen. Sasaki continues with a comment about Chinese troops: "The enemy at hand was Chiang Kai-shek's pet division - rightly so, since they fought most bravely till the bitter end."

  4. "Hohei dai 38 rentai 'Sento shoho' dai 11 go: 12.12.12. yori 12.12.13 made" [Battle report No. 11 prepared by 38th Infantry Regiment and covering December 12-13, 1937] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 475-483, especially p. 479.

  5. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki" in ibid., p. 271.

  6. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit.

  7. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki" in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 271.

  8. Ki 3 shi hensan iinkai [Committee for the compilation of the history of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment], Kihei dai 3 rentai shi [History of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment] (Tokyo: Kisankai, 1978), p. 157; BN, p. 251.

  9. Ibid., p. 155.

  10. Ibid.

  11. Ki 3 shi hensan iinkai, op. cit., p. 158.

  12. Ibid., p. 158.

  13. Ibid., p. 158; testimony of Kato Masayoshi, clerk at 3rd Cavalry Regiment Headquarters in BN, p. 251.

  14. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" [Journal of Iinuma Mamoru] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 155.

  15. Ibid., p. 156.

  16. Testimony of Capt. Kodama Yoshio in BN, pp. 341, 344.

  17. "Sento shoho" [Battle report], No. 11, 38th Infantry Regiment in SMBN, vol. 1, p.476.

  18. Hata, Nankin jiken, p. 118.

  19. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki" in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 272.

  20. Testimony of Nishiura Setsuzo in BN, p. 164

  21. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki," p. 155.

  22. "Hohei dai 30 ryodan meirei (12.12.14)" [30th Infantry Brigade order (12/14/1937)] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 439.

  23. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit.

  24. Excerpt from entry dated December 14, 1937 in war journal of Sgt. Shimizu Kazue, 38th Regiment, 16th Division in Hata, Nankin jiken, p. 120f.

  25. Testimony of 2nd Lt. Muguruma Masajiro in EABN, Part 8 (November 1984), p. 7.

  26. Muguruma Masajiro, Sekishunfu: Waga seishun no omoide [Memories of my youth], self-published, 1990, p. 391f.

  27. "Hague Declaration Concerning Expanding Bullets" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 523.

  28. EABN, Part 5 in Kaiko (August 1984), p. 8.

  29. "Hohei dai 68 rentai dai 3 daitai 'Sento shoho' dai 8 go: 12.11.27. yori 12.12.13 made" [Battle report No. 8 prepared by 3rd Company, 68th Infantry Regiment and covering November 27 - December 13, 1937] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 534-541, especially p. 538.

  30. Ibid.

  31. Ibid.

  32. Ibid.

  33. "Yamazaki Masao nikki" (entry dated December 15, 1937), p. 296.

  34. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" (entry dated December 15, 1937), p. 158.
CHAPTER 9: THE SWEEP AFTER THE FALL OF NANKING
  1. Ichiki, op. cit., p.5.

  2. See Chapter 2, p. {54}; Cf. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1939, p. 562.

  3. Testimony of Capt. Sekiguchi Kozo and Capt. Hashimoto Mochiyuki in EABN, Part 10 (January 1985), p. 30.

  4. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit.

  5. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit.

  6. James Espy, "Nankin ni okeru jokyo" [The Situation in Nanking] in Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 151.

  7. Testimony of Sumiya Iwane in EABN, Part 10 (December 1985), p. 31

  8. Capt. Yasuyama Kodo (Army Medical Corps physician), Shanghai War Journal cited in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 417-426, especially p. 426.

  9. Kasahara, "Archibald Steele shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 582.

  10. According to testimony of Muraoka Minoru and Enoki Katsuharu, "We did shoot at Chinese stragglers to lure them out, but we never used tank guns." Cf. BN, p. 194.

  11. Statement made by William Webb (IMTFE presiding justice) at the Tokyo Trials on April 25, 1947 in Nitta, op. cit., vol. 5, p. 174.

  12. Nanking Incident in Awaya Kentaro, Yoshida Yutaka, eds., Kokusai kensatsukyoku: Jinmon chosa [International Prosecutor's Office: Interrogations] (Tokyo: Nihon Tosho Center, 1993), vol. 50, pp. 31-94. See also interrogation of Lt. Gen. Nakazawa Mitsuo on April 30, 1946 in ibid., pp. 45, 52.

  13. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 433.

  14. Testimony of 2nd Lt. Muguruma Masajiro in EABN, Part 8 (November 1984), p. 7.

  15. Testimony of Takeuchi Goro, medical corpsman, in ibid.

  16. "Hohei dai 38 rentai 'Sento shoho' dai 10 go" [Battle report No. 10 prepared by 38th Infantry Regiment] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 485.

  17. Response of 3rd Division Commander Fujita Susumu in Awaya et al., op. cit., pp. 60f., 64.

  18. Testimony of Master Sgt. Fujita Kiyoshi in EABN, Part 6 (September 1984), p. 6.

  19. Interview with 2nd Lt. Inukai Soichiro on February 3, 1998.

  20. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in SMBN, vol. 1, p.433.

  21. Ibid.

  22. Ibid.

  23. "Yamazaki Masao nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 296.

  24. "Kisaki Hisashi nikki" [Journal of Kisaki Hisashi] (major and administrative staff officer, 16th Infantry Division) in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 307-329, especially p. 320.

  25. Testimony of 1st Lieutenant Tsuchiya Shoji in BN, p. 179.

  26. "Orikono Suetaro nikki" [Journal of Orikono Suetaro] (captain and commander of 3rd Company, 23rd Infantry Regiment) in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 337-340, especially p. 337.

  27. "Hohei dai 38 rentai 'Sento shoho' dai 12 go" [Battle report No. 12 prepared by 38th Infantry Regiment] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 484-488, especially p. 484.

  28. Hsu, op. cit., p. 15.

  29. "Rokuryo sakumei: Ko dai 138 go uyokutai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 4 ji han" [6th Brigade Operation Order A No. 138 (right-flank brigade order) issued at 4:30 p.m. on December 13] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 444.

  30. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in ibid., p. 444.

  31. "Nankinjo no koryaku oyobi nyujo ni kansuru chui jiko" in ibid., p. 434.

  32. "Soto jisshi ni kansuru chui" [Precautions to be taken when implementing the sweep] in ibid., p. 444f.

  33. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 106 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 9 ji 30 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 106 issued at 9:30 p.m. on December 13] in ibid., p. 514.

  34. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 107 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 14 nichi gogo 1 ji 40 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 107 issued at 1:40 p.m. on December 14] in ibid., p. 515.

  35. "Dai 9 shidan sototai meirei" [9th Division Sweep Unit Order] in ibid., p. 445.

  36. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 109 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 14 nichi gogo 10 ji" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order A No. 109 issued at 10:00 p.m. on December 14] in ibid., p. 515.

  37. "Isa Kazuo nikki" [Journal of Isa Kazuo] (colonel and commander, 7th Infantry Regiment) in ibid., pp. 331-336, especially p. 334.

  38. The battle report indicates that the 7th Regiment was near No. 1 Park, which was located southwest of the Gugong airfield. Cf. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 105 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 5 ji 30 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order A No. 105 issued at 5:30 p.m. on December 13] in ibid., p. 514; "Hohei 7 sakumei ko dai 106 go" in ibid., p. 514.

  39. "12 gatsu 13 nichi yori 12 gatsu 24 nichi made: Nankin jonai soto seika hyo: hohei dai 7 rentai" [7th Infantry Regiment: Chart showing results of Nanking sweep conducted from December 13 to December 24] in ibid., p. 524.

  40. Durdin presented as facts events that never took place, e.g., "In one slaughter a tank gun was turned on a group of more than 100 soldiers at a bomb shelter near the Ministry of Communications. See Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit.

  41. "Mizutani So nikki 'Senjin' (Hohei dai 7 rentai dai 2 chutai, itto hei)" [Journal of Mizutani So (The Winds of War) (private first class, 2nd Company, 7th Infantry Regiment)] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 393-399, especially 396.

  42. "Inoie Matakazu nikki (Hohei dai 7 rentai dai ni chutai, itto hei)" [Journal of Inoie Matakazu (private first class, 7th Infantry Regiment) in ibid., pp. 363-375, especially p. 370.

  43. "Isa Kazuo nikki" in ibid., p. 334.

  44. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 111 go: Hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 15 nichi gogo 8 ji 30 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 111 issued at 8:30 p.m. on December 15] in ibid., p. 516.

  45. Ibid.

  46. Ibid.

  47. According to a 7th Regiment battle report, "I remained in my current location until my departure on the 26th." Cf. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 117 go: Hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 24 nichi gogo 6 ji" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 117 issued at 6:00 p.m. on December 24] in ibid., p. 517.

  48. Ibid.
CHAPTER 10: REQUIREMENTS FOR PRISONER-OF-WAR STATUS
  1. Hsu, op. cit., p. 1.

  2. Ibid., p. 14f.

  3. Ibid., p. 5.

  4. See Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, pp. 40, 109. At the Tokyo Trials, Magee testified as follows: "We consider them as civilians." However, that would certainly have been in violation of the Hague Convention of 1907. For more information on this point, see Higashinakano Shudo, "Nankin no Shina hei shokei wa iho ka: Yoshida Yutaka kyoju no hihan ni kotaeru" [Were executions of Chinese soldiers in Nanking unlawful? A response to criticism levied by Prof. Yoshida Yutaka] in Getsuyo Hyoron (March 2000).

  5. Adachi Sumio, Gendai Senso Hokiron [Theory of modern regulations governing war] (Tokyo: Keiseisha, 1979), p. 52f.

  6. Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 511.

  7. Okumiya Masatake, Watashi no mita Nankin jiken [Witness to the Nanking incident] (Tokyo: PHP Kenkyujo, 1997), p. 60.

  8. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit.

  9. Tsutsui Jakusui, Gendai shiryo: Kokusai ho [Modern references: International law] (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 1987), p. 184f.

  10. Eidgenossisches Justiz und Polizeidepartment [Federal Justice and Police Department], ed., Zivilverteidigung [Civil defense] (Aarau: Miles-Verlag, 1969), p. 218.

  11. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 179f.

  12. Ibid., p. 180.

  13. Wickert, op. cit., p. 56.

  14. "Orikono Suetaro nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 337-340, especially p. 337.

  15. Hsu, op. cit., p. 15.

  16. B. K., op. cit., p. 4.

  17. Timperley, op. cit., p. 26f.

  18. Hsu, op. cit., p. 12.

  19. Erwin Wickert, ed., John Rabe, Der Gute Deutsche von Nanking (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1997), p. 107; Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 66.

  20. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 107; Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 66.

  21. Headquarters of the 7th Infantry Regiment were located at No. 1 Park, southwest of the airfield in the wall of Nanking, i.e., in the Dongchang street of Nanking. See "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 105 go" and "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 106 go" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 513f.

  22. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 157.

  23. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 108; Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 67.

  24. "Hohei dai 66 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 9 ji rei fun" [66th Infantry Regiment order issued at 9:00 p.m. on December 13] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 568.

  25. James Espy, "Nankin ni okeru jokyo" [The Situation in Nanking] (January 1938) in Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 149ff.

  26. For details about Steele's article, see Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 466.

  27. Okumiya, op. cit., p. 50.

  28. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 182f.

  29. John Rabe, Nankin no shinjitsu [The truth about Nanking], trans. Hirano Kyoko (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1997), p. 118.

  30. Ibid.

  31. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit.

  32. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, pp. 417, 426.

  33. Ibid., p. 288.

  34. Timperley, op. cit., p. 38.

  35. Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 152.

  36. Ibid., p. 308.

  37. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit.

  38. Abend, "Japanese Curbing Nanking Excesses" in New York Times (19 December 1937).

  39. "Outstanding Events in the Sino-Japanese War," in The China Weekly Review (29 January 1938), p. 246.

  40. A typical example of this was Rev. John Magee's testimony. He testified that on December 17, 1937, "I only personally witnessed the killing of one man." However, in his diary he wrote "The actual killing we did not see as it took place." Magee perjured himself at the Tokyo Trials. Cf. Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 89; Martha L. Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937-1938 (Connecticut: Yale Divinity School Library, 1997), p. 23.

  41. Gray telegram dated February 3, 1938, No. 793.94/12303 in Records of the Department of State Relating to Political Relations between China and Japan, Roll 49.

  42. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 312.

  43. Gray telegram in ibid.

  44. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 29.

  45. Cobuild English Dictionary (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995), p. 94.

  46. Ibid., p. 1565.

  47. Ibid., p. 1023.

  48. Ibid.

  49. Fujioka Nobukatsu, Kingendaishi kyoiku no kaikaku [Reforming Modern and Contemporary History Education] (Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 1996), p. 233.

  50. Gray telegram in op. cit.

  51. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 204.

  52. Hsu, op. cit., p. 5.

  53. Peter Nielsen, "The Nanking Atrocities" in China Today (January 1938).

  54. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 548.

  55. B.K., op. cit.

  56. "War in China" in Time (14 February 1938), p. 17.

  57. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 543.

  58. Nankin jiken shiryoshu 2: Chugoku kankei shiryo hen [Nanking Incident Source Material: Chinese References], trans. Nankin Jiken Chosa Kenkyukai hen [Nanking Incident Research Group] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1992), vol. 2, p. 31.

  59. Anonymous, "Japan's 'Dance Macabre' in Nanking" in China Forum (19 March 1938), p. 130f.

  60. "Cabot Coville no Nankin ryokoki" [Travel journal of Cabot Coville] in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 112.

  61. Ibid., p. 116

  62. Ibid.

(Continued)